20th century departures of foreign nationals from Egypt

The movement of the Mutamassirun ("Egyptianized"), which included the British and French, and also Jews, Greeks, Italians, Syro-Lebanese, and Armenians, began after World War I.^[3] According to Andrew Gorman, this was primarily a result of the "decolonization process and the rise of Egyptian nationalism".^[4][5][6] Following the invasion of Egypt by Britain, France, and Israel in 1956, the new president Gamal Abdel Nasser enacted a set of sweeping regulations abolishing civil liberties while implementing targeted policies, allowing the state to stage mass arrests and strip away Egyptian citizenship from any group it desired.^[7]

Greeks

Egyptian Greeks, often referred to as "Egyptiot Greeks" or simply "Egyptiots", were a prominent ethnic community in Egypt with roots dating back centuries. The exodus of Greeks from Egypt started before the coup d'état of 1952.

According to Al-Jazeera's documentary "Egypt: The Other Homeland," Greeks and Egyptians shared a connection rooted in their ancient civilizations. It was the Greeks who established the first cinemas, industries, and theaters in Egypt, and they introduced commodities like wine and cigarettes to Egyptian society. Flourishing Greek communities existed in cities such as Alexandria, Cairo, and Port Said. In the early 19th century, Greek immigrants to Egypt began cultivating the country's cotton industry, which significantly benefited the Egyptian economy.^[8]

With the establishment of Gamal Abdel Nasser's new regime, the rise of Pan-Arab nationalism, and the subsequent nationalization of many industries in 1961 and 1963, thousands of Greek employees emigrated.^[2] Initially, Nasser assured the Greeks that they would not be harmed by his new policies due to their demonstrated loyalty during the Suez Crisis. Greek volunteers joined the Egyptian Army against British and French troops, and large Greek elements were visible during protests throughout the country. The Greeks believed they would be exempt from the new procedures against foreigners, as promised by Nasser. However, between 1956 and 1960, Nasser reneged on his assurances, and Greeks were included in the measures targeting foreigners. With financial assistance from the Greek government, many Greeks began to leave. As a result, the Greek population in Egypt decreased by 80%.^[8]

Many Greek schools, churches, small communities, and institutions subsequently closed, but many continue to function to this day. The Nasser regime saw a significant exodus of Greeks from Egypt, but most of the minority left the country either before or after the period 1952–1970. The Arab-Israeli war of 1967 contributed to the uprooting of the sizable Greek community in the Suez Canal cities, especially in Port Said.^[2]

Despite their departure, the legacy of the Egyptian Greeks continues to endure through cultural institutions, traditions, and the memories of those who once called Egypt home. Many of them emigrated to Australia, the United States, Canada, South Africa, Western Europe, and Greece. The term "Egyptio Greeks" serves as a reminder of their hybrid identity and the bonds that once connected them to both Egypt and Greece.

Italians

The Italian presence in Egypt grew significantly in the early nineteenth century due to two main factors: the country's role as a refuge for Italian political exiles and the demand for workers during the modernization projects under Muhammad Ali and Isma'il. However, the Italian community in Egypt faced challenges during the mid-twentieth century.^[9]

Beginning before the 1952 coup d'état, many Italians left Egypt gradually. The rise of Pan-Arab nationalism under Gamal Abdel Nasser and the subsequent nationalization of industries in the 1960s prompted thousands of Italian employees to emigrate, seeking better prospects elsewhere.^[10]

Italian educational institutions, notably Salesian schools, underwent transformations that contributed to the departure of Italians from Egypt. Changes in state-level educational policies and the 'Egyptianization' strategy, aimed at integrating Egyptians into the workforce, limited opportunities for Italian expatriates.^[10] By the early 1960s, over 40,000 Italians had left Egypt, mostly as "repatriates" or "national refugees," seeking refuge in Italy due to their ties to the country.^[11]

Jews

The status of Egyptian Jews and their acquisition of Egyptian nationality have been subjects of debate, particularly regarding their motivations and the wider context of suspicion towards minorities, particularly Jews. Mahmud Abd al-Daher, in his work Yahu' d Mis' r, argues that around 49% of Egyptian Jews held Egyptian nationality in 1897, primarily as Ottoman subjects residing locally. During the 19th century, Jewish immigrants arrived in Egypt from various Mediterranean countries and Ottoman areas, contributing to the diverse community.^[12]

Egyptian Company Law 138, promulgated in 1947, is cited as evidence that Egyptian Jews declared themselves 'Egyptian' only when their economic positions were challenged. This law facilitated the 'Egyptianization' process, aiming to ensure Egyptian control over the economy.^[12] The diminishing public activities of Egyptian Jews after the Palestine War and the Israeli Lavon Affair further fueled skepticism towards them and their role in Egypt's economy.^[13]

The Lavon Affair, also known as Operation Susannah, had far-reaching consequences for the Jewish community in Egypt and Israel's political landscape. The operation involved a clandestine plan by Israel's military intelligence branch, Aman, to carry out false-flas attacks in Egypt. The goal was to target Western and Egyptian institutions.^[14] A small group of Egyptian Jews, trained in Israel and Egypt, were tasked with executing the attacks in the hopes of destabilising the regime of President Gamal Abdel Nasser and undermining relations between Egypt, the United States, and Britain.^[15]

The operation commenced with bombings targeting post offices, a railway terminal, U.S. Information Agency libraries, and a British theater in Alexandria and Cairo. However, the Egyptian government became aware of the plan, leading to the arrest of the perpetrators. The failure of Operation Susannah shocked Israel's leaders, who were unwilling to accept responsibility for the activation of the sleeper cell. Due to the Israeli government's refusal to admit to the operation during the trial against them, the general Israeli population remained unaware, while the media depicted the trial as an unjust and anti-Semitic setup.^[15] This situation, among other concerns, posed a significant threat to the safety of the more than 50,000 Jewish residents in Egypt.^[16]

The complexity of Egyptian Jews' lives cannot be divorced from wider political events, such as the Palestine War of 1947-1948. Despite their contributions to Egyptian society, attitudes towards Egyptian Jews worsened over time, exacerbated by events like the Suez War and suspicions of involvement in Zionist activities.^[17] Many Egyptian Jews faced increased insecurity and were arrested during the Suez War, leading to a significant decrease in their numbers in the years following the conflict.^[12]

Reasons for migration among Egyptian Jews included discontent, incidents of property damage supported by nationalist and Islamist slogans,^[17] and the worsening attitudes towards them following the Palestine War and the Lavon Affair. Despite their contributions to Egypt's economy and society, the deteriorating relationship between Egyptians and Egyptian Jews ultimately led to a significant decrease in the Jewish population in Egypt in the aftermath of the Suez War.^[12]

Some 23,000—25,000 Jews out of 42,500 in Egypt left,^[18] mainly for Israel, Western Europe, the United States, South America, and Australia.^[19] Many were forced to sign declarations that they were voluntarily emigrating and agreed to the confiscation of their assets. Similar measures were enacted against British and French nationals in retaliation for the invasion. By 1957 the Jewish population of Egypt had fallen to 15,000.^[20]

Armenians

The Armenian community in Egypt boasts a rich and storied history, characterized by its distinct language, churches, and social institutions. Despite being a minority group, Armenians have made significant contributions to Egyptian society. However, the Armenian population in Egypt has experienced a decline over the years due to various factors, including migration to other countries and integration into broader Egyptian society. Extensive intermarriage with Muslims and Christians has also contributed to this decline. Today, the Armenian community in Egypt numbers around 6,000 individuals, significantly smaller than in previous generations. The majority of Armenians are concentrated in Cairo and Alexandria, the country's two largest cities. Economically, Egyptian Armenians have often pursued self-employment as businessmen or craftsmen and tend to have higher levels of education compared to the national average.^[21]

Armenians first arrived in Egypt as asylum seekers following the Armenian genocide of 1915 in the Ottoman Empire. At their peak, Armenians in Egypt numbered around 60,000 individuals. However, the year 1961 marked a significant turning point when the Egyptian government nationalized many industries, dealing a decisive blow to Egyptians, including Armenians, who were heavily involved in economic activities. This led to a further decrease in the Armenian population in Egypt as many chose to emigrate in search of better opportunities elsewhere.^[22]

• Kamal Ruhayyim's novel Days in the Diaspora portrays the life of an exiled family whose mother is an Egyptian Jew.^[23]
• André Aciman's memoir Out of Egypt addresses the experience of his family in Alexandria.^[24]
• Naguib Mahfouz's novel Miramar takes place in a pension belonging to Mariana, a Greek woman who laments the expulsions' effects on her life and business.^[25]

• Armenians in Egypt
• Syro-Lebanese in Egypt
• Greeks in Egypt
• Italian Egyptians
• History of the Jews in Egypt

• Gorman, Anthony (2003). "The Mutamassirun". Historians, State and Politics in Twentieth Century Egypt: Contesting the Nation. Psychology Press. ISBN 9780415297530.
• Miccoli, Dario (2015). Histories of the Jews of Egypt An imagined bourgeoisie, 1880s–1950s. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-80205-6.
• Kazamias, Alexander (2009). "The 'Purge of the Greeks' from Nasserite Egypt: Myths and Realities". Journal of the Hellenic Diaspora. 35 (2): 13–34.
• Krämer, Gudrun (1989). The Jews in Modern Egypt, 1914–1952. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 9781850431008.
• Laskier, Michael (1995). "Egyptian Jewry under the Nasser Regime, 1956–70". Middle Eastern Studies. 31 (3): 573–619. doi:10.1080/00263209508701070. JSTOR 4283743. Retrieved 17 April 2014.