2023 Spanish general election

Electoral system

The Spanish Cortes Generales were envisaged as an imperfect bicameral system. The Congress of Deputies had greater legislative power than the Senate, having the ability to vote confidence in or withdraw it from a prime minister and to override Senate vetoes by an absolute majority of votes. Nonetheless, the Senate possessed a few exclusive (yet limited in number) functions—such as its role in constitutional amendment—which were not subject to the Congress' override.^[11][12] Voting for the Cortes Generales was on the basis of universal suffrage, which comprised all nationals over 18 years of age and in full enjoyment of their political rights. Amendments to the electoral law in 2022 abolished the "begged" or expat vote system (Spanish: voto rogado), under which Spaniards abroad were required to apply for voter registration before being permitted to vote.^[13] The expat vote system was attributed responsibility for a major decrease in the turnout of Spaniards abroad during the years it had been in force.^[14]

For the Congress of Deputies, 348 seats were elected using the D'Hondt method and a closed list, proportional representation, with an electoral threshold of three percent of valid votes—which included blank ballots—being applied in each constituency. Seats were allocated to constituencies, corresponding to the provinces of Spain, with each being allocated an initial minimum of two seats and the remaining 248 being distributed in proportion to their populations. Ceuta and Melilla were allocated the two remaining seats, which were elected using plurality voting.^[11][15] The use of the D'Hondt method might result in a higher effective threshold, depending on the district magnitude.^[16]

As a result of the aforementioned allocation, each Congress multi-member constituency was entitled the following seats:^[17]

For the Senate, 208 seats were elected using an open list partial block voting system, with electors voting for individual candidates instead of parties. In constituencies electing four seats, electors could vote for up to three candidates; in those with two or three seats, for up to two candidates; and for one candidate in single-member districts. Each of the 47 peninsular provinces was allocated four seats, whereas for insular provinces, such as the Balearic and Canary Islands, districts were the islands themselves, with the larger—Majorca, Gran Canaria and Tenerife—being allocated three seats each, and the smaller—Menorca, Ibiza–Formentera, Fuerteventura, La Gomera, El Hierro, Lanzarote and La Palma—one each. Ceuta and Melilla elected two seats each. Additionally, autonomous communities could appoint at least one senator each and were entitled to one additional senator per each million inhabitants.^[11][15]

Election date

The term of each chamber of the Cortes Generales—the Congress and the Senate—expired four years from the date of their previous election, unless they were dissolved earlier. The election decree was required to be issued no later than the twenty-fifth day prior to the date of expiry of parliament and published on the following day in the Official State Gazette (BOE), with election day taking place on the fifty-fourth day from publication. The previous election was held on 10 November 2019, which meant that the legislature's term would have expired on 10 November 2023. The election decree was required to be published in the BOE no later than 17 October 2023, with the election taking place on the fifty-fourth day from publication, setting the latest possible election date for the Cortes Generales on Sunday, 10 December 2023.^[15][18]

The prime minister had the prerogative to dissolve both chambers at any given time—either jointly or separately—and call a snap election, provided that no motion of no confidence was in process, no state of emergency was in force and that dissolution did not occur before one year had elapsed since the previous one. Additionally, both chambers were to be dissolved and a new election called if an investiture process failed to elect a prime minister within a two-month period from the first ballot.^[11] Barred this exception, there was no constitutional requirement for simultaneous elections for the Congress and the Senate. Still, as of 2024 there has been no precedent of separate elections taking place under the 1978 Constitution.

Following his party's defeat in the 2021 Madrilenian regional election, Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez commented that there were still "32 months to go" ahead of the next general election, which meant that the election date was implied to be tentatively scheduled for January 2024.^[19] This opened questions on the maximum timetable for holding a new election, with legal interpretations up until that point considering that the Cortes Generales expiry date was set four years from the previous election;^[20][21] however, an interpretation that considered that the four-year timetable started counting from the chamber's first assembly or from the prime minister's investiture could push the election date into January or February 2024.^[22][23] On 2 August 2022, Sánchez himself dispelled any doubts on this issue by announcing that the election would be held in December 2023,^[24] a position reiterated on 27 March 2023 when he said that there were still "nine months left" in the current parliamentary term.^[25]

After the 28 May 2023 regional and local elections, Sánchez announced the following day that the general election would be held on 23 July, with the election decree being published in the BOE the day after.^[26] With only Sánchez's inner circle having prior knowledge of the announcement before it was made,^[27] political parties from across the spectrum were caught by surprise,^[28] with PP leaders in particular reportedly feeling upset over the election call as it prevented them from capitalising on their gains in the previous day's elections.^[29] The IBEX 35 stock index also reacted negatively to the surprise election call.^[30] The Cortes Generales were officially dissolved on 30 May 2023 after the publication of the dissolution decree in the BOE, setting the election date for 23 July and scheduling for both chambers to reconvene on 17 August.^[17] This was the first time such an election was held in July since the 1839 Spanish general election.^[31]

The tables below show the composition of the parliamentary groups in both chambers at the time of dissolution.^[32][33]

The electoral law allowed for parties and federations registered in the interior ministry, coalitions and groupings of electors to present lists of candidates. Parties and federations intending to form a coalition ahead of an election were required to inform the relevant Electoral Commission within ten days of the election call, whereas groupings of electors needed to secure the signature of at least one percent of the electorate in the constituencies for which they sought election, disallowing electors from signing for more than one list of candidates. Concurrently, parties, federations or coalitions that had not obtained a mandate in either chamber of the Cortes at the preceding election were required to secure the signature of at least 0.1 percent of electors in the aforementioned constituencies.^[15] The electoral law provided for a special, simplified process for election re-runs, including a shortening of deadlines, the lifting of signature requirements if these had been already met for the immediately previous election and the possibility of maintaining lists and coalitions without needing to go through pre-election procedures again.

Below is a list of the main parties and electoral alliances which contested the election:

Candidacy		Parties and alliances	Leading candidate		Ideology	Previous result			Gov.	Ref.
						Votes (%)	Con.	Sen.
	PSOE	List Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) Socialists' Party of Catalonia (PSC)		Pedro Sánchez	Social democracy	28.00%	120	92	Y	[39] [40]
	PP	List People's Party (PP) Navarre Platform (PN)		Alberto Núñez Feijóo	Conservatism Christian democracy	20.81%	89	83	N	[41] [42]
	Vox	List Vox (Vox)		Santiago Abascal	Right-wing populism Ultranationalism National conservatism	15.08%	52	2	N
	Sumar	List Unite Movement (SMR) We Can (Podemos) United Left (IU) – Communist Party of Spain (PCE) – The Dawn. Marxist Organization OM (La Aurora (om)) – Ecosocialists of the Region of Murcia (ESRM) – Initiative for El Hierro (IpH) – Republican Left (IR) More Madrid (MM) Greens Equo (VQ) Green Alliance (AV) In Common We Can (ECP) – Catalonia in Common (CatComú) – Barcelona in Common (BComú) – Green Left (EV) Commitment Coalition (Compromís) – Més–Compromís (Més) – Valencian People's Initiative (IdPV) – Greens Equo of the Valencian Country (VerdsEquo) More for Mallorca (Més) More for Menorca (MxMe) Aragonese Union (CHA) Drago Canaries Party (DRG) Asturian Left (IAS) Assembly (Batzarre) Andalusian People's Initiative (IdPA)		Yolanda Díaz	Progressivism Left-wing populism Green politics	15.34%[a]	38	0	Y	[43] [44] [45] [46]
	ERC	List Republican Left of Catalonia (ERC) Republican Left of the Valencian Country (ERPV)		Gabriel Rufián	Catalan independence Left-wing nationalism Social democracy	3.63%	13	—[e]	N
	Junts	List Together for Catalonia (JxCat) Democrats of Catalonia (DC) Left Movement (MES)		Míriam Nogueras	Catalan independence Sovereigntism Populism	2.19%[b]	8	3	N	[47] [48]
	PDeCAT– E–CiU	List Catalan European Democratic Party (PDeCAT) CiU Space (E–CiU)		Roger Montañola	Catalan nationalism Liberalism				N	[49] [50]
	EAJ/PNV	List Basque Nationalist Party (EAJ/PNV)		Aitor Esteban	Basque nationalism Christian democracy Social democracy	1.56%	6	9	N	[51]
	EH Bildu	List Basque Country Gather (EH Bildu) – Create (Sortu) – Basque Solidarity (EA) – Alternative (Alternatiba)		Mertxe Aizpurua	Basque independence Abertzale left Socialism	1.14%	5	—[e]	N	[52]
	CUP–PR	List Popular Unity Candidacy (CUP) – Forward–Socialist Organization of National Liberation (Endavant–OSAN) – Free People (PL–PPCC) – Internationalist Struggle (LI–CI) Let's Reverse (Capgirem)		Albert Botran	Catalan independence Anti-capitalism Socialism	1.02%	2	0	N	[53]
	CCa	List Canarian Coalition (CCa) Independent Herrenian Group (AHI) United for Gran Canaria (UxGC) United for Mogán (JPM) The Strength of Santa Lucía (La Fortaleza) Assembly of Neighbors of San Mateo (AVESAN) Socialist Group for Lanzarote (ASL) Tejeda for the Change (Tejeda por el Cambio) Local Platform for Santa Brígida (PVSB) Guía Now (AG) Democratic Centre Coalition (CCD)		Cristina Valido	Regionalism Canarian nationalism Centrism	0.51%[f]	2	0	N	[54] [55] [56]
	NC–BC	List New Canaries–Canarian Bloc (NC–BC)		Luis Campos	Canarian nationalism Social democracy				N	[57]
	BNG	List Galician Nationalist Bloc (BNG) – Galician People's Union (UPG) – Galician Movement for Socialism (MGS) – Abrente–Galician Democratic Left (Abrente–EDG) – Galician Workers' Front (FOGA)		Néstor Rego	Galician nationalism Left-wing nationalism Socialism	0.50%	1	0	N
	EV	List Empty Spain (EV) – Teruel Exists (TE) – Aragon Exists (AE) – Soria Now! (SY) Castilian Party–Commoners' Land (PCAS–TC)		Diego Loras	Localism Ruralism	0.08%[g]	1	2	N	[58] [59] [60] [61]
	ERC– EH Bildu	List Republican Left of Catalonia (ERC) Basque Country Gather (EH Bildu)		Mirella Cortès Gès	Left-wing nationalism	Senate		12[e]	N	[62]
	ASG	List Gomera Socialist Group (ASG)		Fabián Chinea	Insularism Social democracy	Senate		1	N	[63]
	EFS	List Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) Unite Movement (SMR) United Left (EU) Now Ibiza (Ara Eivissa)		Juanjo Ferrer	Progressivism	Senate		1	N	[64]
	AHI	List Independent Herrenian Group (AHI)		Javier Armas	Insularism Canarian nationalism Centrism	Senate		0	N	[65]
	UPN	List Navarrese People's Union (UPN)		Alberto Catalán	Regionalism Conservatism Christian democracy	New[h]			N	[66] [67] [68] [69]
Not contesting
	CS	List Citizens–Party of the Citizenry (CS)		Patricia Guasp	Liberalism	6.80%	10	0	N	[70] [71] [72]
	PRC	List Regionalist Party of Cantabria (PRC)		José María Mazón	Regionalism Centrism	0.28%	1	0	N	[73]

Internal disputes emerged within the People's Party (PP) following Isabel Díaz Ayuso's landslide victory in the 2021 Madrilenian election, as the president of the Community of Madrid came to be seen by a party sector as a better candidate than Pablo Casado to face off Pedro Sánchez in a general election.^[74][75] The conflict came to a head from September 2021 when both sides clashed for the control of the People's Party of the Community of Madrid, with Ayuso's possible rise to the presidency of the regional PP being seen by Casado's supporters as an immediate threat to his national leadership.^[76][77] Following several months of a leadership that was perceived as poor and erratic, coupled with an erosion of popular support in opinion polls and a disappointing result in the 2022 Castilian-Leonese regional election, the crisis entered a new stage on 16 February 2022 when some media revealed an alleged plot of the party's national leadership to investigate Ayuso's family in search of compromising material—more specifically, alleged influence peddling in the awarding of public contracts to Ayuso's brother. After several days of public infighting between both Casado and Ayuso, Alberto Núñez Feijóo, the president of the Regional Government of Galicia, was reported as having agreed with the latter and other party regional presidents to become the party's new leader and replace Casado, who was said to be willing to hold on until the 20th National Congress of the People's Party scheduled for July.^[78][79][80] On 22 February, Casado's resignation was announced after he was abandoned by most of the party's leadership and public officers.^[41]

As a result of Pablo Iglesias's farewell from active politics in May 2021, Yolanda Díaz, the Minister of Labour and from July 2021 also the Second Deputy Prime Minister of Spain, came to be widely regarded as Iglesias's presumptive successor as prime ministerial candidate in the next general election.^[43] Díaz expressed her will to shape a new electoral platform transcending political parties, as well as the Unidas Podemos brand,^[81][82] aiming to secure the support of ideologically close forces, such as En Comú Podem (ECP), Compromís, and Más Madrid/Más País, while giving a prevalent role to civil society.^[83][84][85] The platform saw an advance unity act during an event to be held on 13 November 2021, with the participation of a number of women representative of the various political spaces that could eventually join it: Díaz herself, Barcelona mayor Ada Colau (ECP), Valencian vice-president Mónica Oltra (Compromís), Madrilenian opposition leader Mónica García (Más Madrid), and Ceutan councillor Fatima Hamed (from the Movement for Dignity and Citizenship, MDyC); the absence of Podemos members in the event, most notably of Equality and Social Rights ministers Irene Montero and Ione Belarra, was seen as evidence of the growing diminished role of Unidas Podemos within the platform.^[86] Díaz's-led left-wing alliance was also well received by Sánchez, who saw it as important for the "progressive space" to be in "top shape" for his government to be able to maintain and expand its majority in the next election.^[87] While Broad Front has been frequently used in the media to refer to Díaz's platform,^[88][89] it has been commented that Díaz herself has rejected the use of this name for its connections with similar brandings used by left-wing populist alliances in Latin America.^[90] On 18 May 2022, it was announced that Díaz's platform would go under the name Sumar (English: Unite).^[91]

In September 2021, citizen collectives of the Empty Spain (Spanish: España Vacía or España Vaciada), a coined term to refer to Spain's rural and largely unpopulated interior provinces,^[92] agreed to look forward to formulas to contest the next elections in Spain, inspired by the success of the Teruel Existe candidacy (Spanish for "Teruel Exists") in the November 2019 general election.^[58] By November 2021, it was confirmed that over 160 collectives and associations from about 30 Spanish provinces had committed themselves to finalise the electoral platform before January 2022.^[59] It then contested the 2022 Castilian-Leonese regional election, with mixed results; it was a success in the province of Soria, where the Soria Now! (SY) platform is based, but it was a disappointment elsewhere.^[93]

On 30 May 2023, the national executive of Citizens, which had won 10 seats in 2019, announced that the party would not contest the general election following its poor results in the regional and local elections.^[72] This decision was criticised by a number of its elected representatives, including incumbent MP and former party leadership contender Edmundo Bal.^[94]

On 8 June 2023, as a result of the bad result of the Regionalist Party of Cantabria (PRC) in the 2023 Cantabrian regional election, the party leader Miguel Ángel Revilla announced that the PRC would not run in the elections, as agreed by its Executive Committee.^[73]

The key dates are listed below. All times are CET, while the Canary Islands use WET (UTC+0) instead.^[15][95]

• 29 May: Felipe VI issued the election decree with the countersign of the prime minister after deliberation in the Council of Ministers.^[17]
• 30 May: Formal dissolution of the Cortes Generales and beginning of a suspension period of events for the inauguration of public works, services or projects.
• 2 June: Initial constitution of provincial and zone electoral commissions.
• 9 June: Deadline for parties and federations intending to enter into a coalition to inform the relevant electoral commission.
• 19 June: Deadline for parties, federations, coalitions, and groupings of electors to present lists of candidates to the relevant electoral commission.
• 21 June: Submitted lists of candidates are provisionally published in the Boletín Oficial del Estado (BOE).
• 24 June: Deadline for citizens entered in the Register of Absent Electors Residing Abroad (CERA) and for citizens temporarily absent from Spain to apply for voting.
• 25 June: Deadline for parties, federations, coalitions, and groupings of electors to rectify irregularities in their lists.
• 26 June: Official proclamation of valid submitted lists of candidates.
• 27 June: Proclaimed lists are published in the BOE.
• 7 July: Official start of electoral campaigning.^[17]
• 13 July: Deadline to apply for postal voting.
• 18 July: Official start of legal ban on electoral opinion polling publication, dissemination or reproduction and deadline for CERA citizens to vote by mail.
• 19 July: Deadline for postal and temporarily absent voters to issue their votes.
• 21 July: Last day of official electoral campaigning and deadline for CERA citizens to vote in a ballot box in the relevant consular office or division^[17]
• 22 July: Official 24-hour ban on political campaigning prior to the general election (election silence).
• 23 July: Polling day (polling stations open at 9 am and close at 8 pm or once voters present in a queue at/outside the polling station at 8 pm have cast their vote). Provisional counting of votes starts immediately.^[96]
• 26 July: General counting of votes, including the counting of CERA votes.
• 29 July: Deadline for the general counting of votes to be carried out by the relevant electoral commission.
• 7 August: Deadline for elected members to be proclaimed by the relevant electoral commission.
• 17 August: Deadline for both chambers of the Cortes Generales to be re-assembled (the election decree determines this date, which for the 2023 election was set for 17 August).^[17]
• 16 September: Final deadline for definitive results to be published in the BOE.

Issues

An Ipsos poll published in July 2023 showed that most of the respondents saw economic issues as most important, followed by unemployment and healthcare.^[97] BBC News reported that LGBT issues have been also distinguished during the campaign period.^[98]

During the campaign period, Vox campaigned on lowering the income tax, reducing public spending, and introducing tougher anti-migration laws.^{[99][100][101]} Vox was also in favour of reducing powers of Spain's autonomous communities, rolling back abortion, LGBT, and women's rights, and pulling Spain out of the Paris Agreement.^{[99][102][103]} Sonia Gallego of Al Jazeera said that Vox's rhetoric "will put it on a collision course with those separatist movements, not just in the Basque Country but Catalonia as well".^[104] Vox received support from Brothers of Italy, led by Giorgia Meloni, during the campaign period.^[98]

PP campaigned on lowering taxes and introducing policies that would boost foreign investments, with Feijóo trying to portray himself as a moderate.^[102][105] Feijóo was also faced with criticism from Sumar due to his past ties with drug trafficker Marcial Dorado [es] when he served in the Galician government in the 1990s.^[104][106] Feijóo responded by saying that Dorado "had been a smuggler [but] never a drug trafficker" when he knew him.^[100] PP and Vox also campaigned on ending Sanchismo, policies introduced by Sánchez and his coalition government, with Feijóo stating that it his main priority.^[104][107] Both parties also accused Sanchez of overly relying on separatist parties to pass key legislation and pardoning jailed leaders. The catchphrase Let Txapote vote for you was popularized within this context.^[108]

PSOE's Sánchez has portrayed the election as a "showdown between the forces of progress and the forces of reactionary conservatism".^[100] He also criticised the relationship between PP and Vox.^[100] PP criticised PSOE's sexual assault law (Ley del solo sí es sí), which was introduced in August 2022, and PSOE's relationship with minority and pro-independence parties.^{[98][100][109]} At least 104 convicted sexual offenders were released due to the law; Sánchez apologised for the loopholes in the law.^[110]

Sumar campaigned on criticising Vox and focusing on issues regarding climate change and introducing a shorter workweek.^[111] In order to challenge social inequality, Díaz proposed a €20,000 "universal inheritance" policy for those over 18 years old which could be spent on studies or creating a business.^[98][112] As part of its campaign policy, Sumar also campaigned on increasing taxes on the rich.^[112]

Party slogans

Election debates

Opinion polls

Candidate viewed as "performing best" or "most convincing" in each debate

Debate	Polling firm/Commissioner	PSOE	PP	Tie	None	?
10 July 2023	ElectoPanel/Electomanía[132]	35.8	52.5	–	–	11.7
	Sigma Dos/El Mundo[133]	45.8	54.2	–	–	–
	40dB/Prisa (1st wave)[134]	31.4	31.1	–	18.0	19.4
	Sociométrica/El Español[135]	30.4	58.0	11.6	–	–
	Simple Lógica/elDiario.es[136]	31.2	50.1	–	18.8	–
	40dB/Prisa (2nd wave)[137]	21.5	44.2	–	26.3	8.0
	Invymark/laSexta[138]	43.8	54.4	–	–	1.8

Polling aggregations

Polling aggregator	Last update									Lead
2023 election	23 Jul 2023	31.7 121	33.1 137	12.4 33	–	–	[l]	[l]	12.3 31	1.4
El Periódico[139]	23 Jul 2023	28.8 104	36.0 140	13.2 37	–	–	[l]	[l]	13.1 34	7.2
El País[140]	18 Jul 2023	28.3 108	34.1 142	12.8 35	–	–	[l]	[l]	13.2 34	5.8
Electocracia[141]	17 Jul 2023	28.2 107/109	34.7 143/145	13.0 34/36	–	–	[l]	[l]	12.6 30/32	6.5
Electográfica[142]	17 Jul 2023	28.1 105	34.4 140	12.7 35	–	–	[l]	[l]	13.2 37	6.3
El Electoral[143]	17 Jul 2023	28.5 106	34.0 138	12.9 37	–	–	[l]	[l]	13.1 37	5.5
El Plural[144]	17 Jul 2023	28.2 109	33.9 142	13.1 33	–	–	[l]	[l]	12.9 34	5.7
Europe Elects[145]	17 Jul 2023	28.5	34.5	12.9	–	–	[l]	[l]	13.1	6.0
Politico[146]	17 Jul 2023	28.0	34.0	13.0	–	–	[l]	[l]	13.0	6.0
PolitPro[147]	17 Jul 2023	27.9	33.7	13.4	–	–	[l]	[l]	13.3	5.8
Porcentual[148]	17 Jul 2023	28.4 109	34.0 142	12.7 34	–	–	[l]	[l]	13.3 33	5.6
Electomanía[149]	16 Jul 2023	28.5	34.6	12.8	–	–	[l]	[l]	12.9	5.5
Nov. 2019 election	10 Nov 2019	28.0 120	20.8 89	15.1 52	12.9 35	6.8 10	2.4 3	[m]	–	7.2

The table below shows registered vote turnout on election day without including voters from the Census of Absent-Residents (CERA).

Congress of Deputies

← Summary of the 23 July 2023 Congress of Deputies election results →

Parties and alliances		Popular vote			Seats
		Votes	%	±pp	Total	+/−
	People's Party (PP)	8,160,837	33.06	+12.25	137	+48
	Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE)	7,821,718	31.68	+3.68	121	+1
	Vox (Vox)	3,057,000	12.38	–2.70	33	–19
	Unite (Sumar)1	3,044,996	12.33	–3.01	31	–7
	Republican Left of Catalonia (ERC)	466,020	1.89	–1.74	7	–6
	Together for Catalonia (Junts)2	395,429	1.60	n/a	7	+3
	Basque Country Gather (EH Bildu)	335,129	1.36	+0.22	6	+1
	Basque Nationalist Party (EAJ/PNV)	277,289	1.12	–0.44	5	–1
	Animalist Party with the Environment (PACMA)3	169,237	0.69	–0.25	0	±0
	Galician Nationalist Bloc (BNG)	153,995	0.62	+0.12	1	±0
	Canarian Coalition (CCa)4	116,363	0.47	n/a	1	±0
	Popular Unity Candidacy–For Rupture (CUP–PR)	99,644	0.40	–0.62	0	–2
	Navarrese People's Union (UPN)5	52,188	0.21	n/a	1	–1
	Workers' Front (FO)	46,274	0.19	New	0	±0
	New Canaries–Canarian Bloc (NC–BC)4	45,595	0.18	n/a	0	–1
	Empty Spain (España Vaciada)	36,793	0.15	+0.07	0	–1
	Aragon Exists–Exists Coalition (Existe)6	20,440	0.08	±0.00	0	–1
	Soria Now! (SY)	9,697	0.04	New	0	±0
	Empty Spain (España Vaciada)	5,472	0.02	New	0	±0
	Empty Spain–Castilian Party–Commoners' Land (EV–PCAS–TC)	1,184	0.00	New	0	±0
	Catalan European Democratic Party–CiU Space (PDeCAT–E–CiU)2	32,016	0.13	n/a	0	–4
	Zero Cuts (Recortes Cero)	23,421	0.09	–0.05	0	±0
	For a Fairer World (PUM+J)	23,290	0.09	–0.02	0	±0
	Leonese People's Union (UPL)	23,201	0.09	+0.05	0	±0
	Communist Party of the Workers of Spain (PCTE)	18,218	0.07	+0.02	0	±0
	Yes to the Future (GBai)	9,938	0.04	–0.01	0	±0
	Forward Andalusia (Adelante Andalucía)	9,191	0.04	New	0	±0
	Blank Seats to Leave Empty Seats (EB)	8,448	0.03	+0.01	0	±0
	Jaén Deserves More (JM+)	8,293	0.03	New	0	±0
	For Ávila (XAV)	7,362	0.03	+0.01	0	±0
	Extremaduran Bloc (BQEx)	5,807	0.02	New	0	±0
	Walking Together (CJ)	5,620	0.02	New	0	±0
	Spanish Phalanx of the CNSO (FE–JONS)	4,683	0.02	+0.02	0	±0
	Aragonese Party (PAR)	4,173	0.02	New	0	±0
	Humanist Party (PH)	2,902	0.01	±0.00	0	±0
	For Huelva (XH)	1,931	0.01	New	0	±0
	Let's Go Palencia (VP)	1,917	0.01	New	0	±0
	Zamora Yes (ZSí)	1,843	0.01	New	0	±0
	Burgalese Way (VB)	1,774	0.01	New	0	±0
	For My Region (Por Mi Región)7	1,698	0.01	±0.00	0	±0
	Canaries Now–Communist Party of the Canarian People (ANC–UP–PCPC)8	1,674	0.01	±0.00	0	±0
	Self-employed Party (Partido Autónomos)	1,446	0.01	New	0	±0
	Valencian Welfare State (EVB)	1,442	0.01	New	0	±0
	Coalition for Melilla (CpM)	1,298	0.01	–0.03	0	±0
	Together for Granada (JxG)	1,218	0.00	New	0	±0
	Regionalist Party of the Leonese Country (PREPAL)	964	0.00	±0.00	0	±0
	We Are Cáceres (Somos Cc)	963	0.00	New	0	±0
	Almerienses–Regionalists for Almería (ALM)	874	0.00	New	0	±0
	Federation of Independents of Aragon (FIA)	506	0.00	±0.00	0	±0
	Seniors in Action (3e)	484	0.00	New	0	±0
	Castilian Unity (UdCa)	463	0.00	New	0	±0
	Alive Land Palencia Independent Group (GIPTV)	366	0.00	New	0	±0
	State of Spain Unionist Party (PUEDE)	269	0.00	New	0	±0
	Catalonia Among Neighbors (EVR)	265	0.00	New	0	±0
	Free (LB)	263	0.00	New	0	±0
	United Yes (Unidos SI)	253	0.00	±0.00	0	±0
	System Money Referendum (+RDS+)	165	0.00	New	0	±0
	Citizens of Democratic Centre (CCD)	153	0.00	New	0	±0
	Civic Force (Fuerza Cívica)	115	0.00	New	0	±0
	Citizens–Party of the Citizenry (Cs)	n/a	n/a	–6.80	0	–10
	Regionalist Party of Cantabria (PRC)	n/a	n/a	–0.28	0	–1
Blank ballots		200,673	0.81	–0.09
Total		24,688,087			350	±0
Valid votes		24,688,087	98.94	–0.04
Invalid votes		264,360	1.06	+0.04
Votes cast / turnout		24,952,447	66.59	+0.36
Abstentions		12,517,011	33.41	–0.36
Registered voters		37,469,458
Sources[151][152][153]
Footnotes: 1 Unite results are compared to the combined totals of United We Can, In Common–United We Can, More Country, More Left and Aragonese Union in the November 2019 election. 2 Within the Together for Catalonia–Together alliance in the November 2019 election. 3 Animalist Party with the Environment results are compared to Animalist Party Against Mistreatment of Animals totals in the November 2019 election. 4 Within the Canarian Coalition–New Canaries alliance in the November 2019 election. 5 Within the Sum Navarre alliance in the November 2019 election. 6 Aragon Exists–Exists Coalition results are compared to Teruel Exists totals in the November 2019 election. 7 For My Region results are compared to We Are Region totals in the November 2019 election. 8 Canaries Now–Communist Party of the Canarian People results are compared to the combined totals of Canaries Now and Communist Party of the Canarian People in the November 2019 election.

Senate

← Summary of the 23 July 2023 Senate of Spain election results →

Parties and alliances		Popular vote			Seats
		Votes	%	±pp	Total	+/−
	People's Party (PP)	23,536,366	34.54	+7.70	120	+37
	Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE)1	21,970,469	32.24	+1.64	72	–20
	Unite (Sumar)2	7,551,985	11.08	–2.81	0	±0
	Vox (Vox)	7,249,087	10.64	+5.36	0	–2
	Left for Independence (ERC–EH Bildu)3	2,845,828	4.18	–1.95	7	–5
	Republican Left of Catalonia (ERC–Esquerres per la Independència)	1,836,731	2.70	–2.10	3	–8
	Basque Country Gather (EH Bildu–Independentzia Ezkerretik)	1,009,097	1.48	+0.15	4	+3
	Together for Catalonia (Junts)4	1,251,626	1.84	n/a	1	–2
	Basque Nationalist Party (EAJ/PNV)	859,968	1.26	–0.55	4	–5
	Animalist Party with the Environment (PACMA)5	671,290	0.98	–0.56	0	±0
	Galician Nationalist Bloc (BNG)	516,032	0.76	+0.11	0	±0
	Canarian Coalition (CCa)6	205,273	0.30	n/a	0	±0
	Navarrese People's Union (UPN)7	188,577	0.28	n/a	1	–2
	Empty Spain (España Vaciada)	142,454	0.21	+0.12	0	–2
	Exists Coalition (Existe)8	75,490	0.11	+0.02	0	–2
	Soria Now! (SY)	31,387	0.05	New	0	±0
	Empty Spain (España Vaciada)	16,759	0.02	New	0	±0
	Asturias Exists–Empty Spain (Asturias Existe EV)	11,923	0.02	New	0	±0
	Empty Spain–Castilian Party–Commoners' Land (EV–PCAS–TC)	6,893	0.01	New	0	±0
	Leonese People's Union (UPL)	94,571	0.14	+0.07	0	±0
	Zero Cuts (Recortes Cero)	84,437	0.12	–0.08	0	±0
	Communist Party of the Workers of Spain (PCTE)	66,622	0.10	+0.06	0	±0
	New Canaries–Canarian Bloc (NC–BC)6	66,327	0.10	n/a	0	±0
	For a Fairer World (PUM+J)	62,785	0.09	–0.02	0	±0
	Catalan European Democratic Party–CiU Space (PDeCAT–E–CiU)4	49,302	0.07	n/a	0	±0
	Blank Seats to Leave Empty Seats (EB)	41,038	0.06	+0.02	0	±0
	Yes to the Future (GBai)	37,375	0.05	–0.03	0	±0
	Forward Andalusia (Adelante Andalucía)	33,041	0.05	New	0	±0
	For Ávila (XAV)	28,153	0.04	+0.01	0	±0
	Ibiza and Formentera in the Senate (PSOE–SMR–EU–Ara Eivissa)9	26,389	0.04	±0.00	1	±0
	Extremaduran Bloc (BQEx)	24,783	0.04	New	0	±0
	Aragonese Party (PAR)	18,402	0.03	New	0	±0
	Walking Together (CJ)	17,309	0.03	New	0	±0
	Spanish Phalanx of the CNSO (FE–JONS)	16,382	0.02	+0.01	0	±0
	Humanist Party (PH)	14,986	0.02	–0.02	0	±0
	Jaén Deserves More (JM+)	14,342	0.02	New	0	±0
	For Huelva (XH)	9,769	0.01	New	0	±0
	Together for Granada (JxG)	8,505	0.01	New	0	±0
	For My Region (Por Mi Región)10	7,907	0.01	–0.01	0	±0
	Zamora Yes (ZSí)	7,660	0.01	New	0	±0
	Burgalese Way (VB)	5,510	0.01	New	0	±0
	We Are Cáceres (Somos Cc)	4,773	0.01	New	0	±0
	Valencian Welfare State (EVB)	4,034	0.01	New	0	±0
	Gomera Socialist Group (ASG)	3,996	0.01	±0.00	1	±0
	Regionalist Party of the Leonese Country (PREPAL)	3,737	0.00	–0.01	0	±0
	Canaries Now–Communist Party of the Canarian People (ANC–UP–PCPC)11	3,461	0.01	±0.00	0	±0
	Let's Go Palencia (VP)	3,244	0.00	New	0	±0
	Coalition for Melilla (CpM)	2,671	0.00	–0.03	0	±0
	Almerienses–Regionalists for Almería (ALM)	2,649	0.00	New	0	±0
	Alive Land Palencia Independent Group (GIPTV)	2,532	0.00	New	0	±0
	Federation of Independents of Aragon (FIA)	2,197	0.00	±0.00	0	±0
	Independent Herrenian Group (AHI)	2,189	0.00	New	1	+1
	Castilian Unity (UdCa)	1,805	0.00	New	0	±0
	Catalonia Among Neighbors (EVR)	1,749	0.00	New	0	±0
	Seniors in Action (3e)	642	0.00	New	0	±0
	Free (LB)	629	0.00	New	0	±0
	State of Spain Unionist Party (PUEDE)	520	0.00	New	0	±0
	Citizens of Democratic Centre (CCD)	467	0.00	New	0	±0
	Herrenian Assembly (AH)	360	0.00	New	0	±0
Blank ballots[n]		385,805	1.59	–0.30
Total		68,152,008			208	±0
Valid votes		24,285,035	97.72	+0.02
Invalid votes		567,497	2.28	–0.02
Votes cast / turnout		24,852,532	66.33	+0.42
Abstentions		12,616,926	33.67	–0.42
Registered voters		37,469,458
Sources[151][152]
Footnotes: 1 Spanish Socialist Workers' Party results are compared to Spanish Socialist Workers' Party totals in the November 2019 election, not including results in Ibiza–Formentera. 2 Unite results are compared to the combined totals of United We Can, In Common–United We Can, More Country, More Left and Aragonese Union in the November 2019 election, not including results in Ibiza–Formentera. 3 Left for Independence results are compared to the combined totals of Republican Left of Catalonia–Sovereigntists and Basque Country Gather in the November 2019 election, not including results in Ibiza–Formentera. 4 Within the Together for Catalonia–Together alliance in the November 2019 election. 5 Animalist Party with the Environment results are compared to Animalist Party Against Mistreatment of Animals totals in the November 2019 election. 6 Within the Canarian Coalition–New Canaries alliance in the November 2019 election. 7 Within the Sum Navarre alliance in the November 2019 election. 8 Empty Spain results are compared to Teruel Exists totals in the November 2019 election. 9 Ibiza and Formentera in the Senate results are compared to the combined totals of Spanish Socialist Workers' Party, United We Can and Republican Left of Catalonia in Ibiza–Formentera in the November 2019 election. 10 For My Region results are compared to We Are Region totals in the November 2019 election. 11 Canaries Now–Communist Party of the Canarian People results are compared to the combined totals of Canaries Now and Communist Party of the Canarian People in the November 2019 election.

37,466,432 voters had the right to vote in the general election.^[154] The election results showed that PP won 33.1 percent of popular vote and 137 seats in the Congress of Deputies, while PSOE won 31.7 percent of popular vote and 121 seats in the Congress of Deputies.^[155][156] Despite the PP gaining 48 seats and increasing its vote share by over 12 points, its result was well below expectations to reach above 150 or 160 seats and insufficient to secure a right-wing majority to govern.^{[157][158][159]} Conversely, the PSOE overperformed polls by improving upon previous results, gaining almost 1 million votes—the most votes gained by the prime minister's party in Spain after a full first term in office—scoring its best result since the 2008 Spanish general election in terms of votes and vote share.^[160][161]

Vox won 33 seats, losing 19 seats that it won in the previous election, while Sumar won 31 seats.^[162][163] In part due to a campaign led by the Assemblea Nacional Catalana encouraging pro-Catalan independence voters to boycott the election,^{[164][165][166]} pro-independence parties lost 46% of the votes they won in the previous election, materializing in the loss of 9 seats and the exit from the Congress of the anti-capitalists of the Popular Unity Candidacy.^[167]

Government formation

During the campaign period, news agencies mentioned that in case of a PP victory, it would have to rely on Vox for a parliamentary majority,^{[100][102][168]} despite Feijóo saying that he would prefer a minority government instead.^[105][169] The election results later showed that even PP and Vox together would not have enough seats to form a majority, considering that they won 170 seats in total.^{[155][162][170]} Both PP and PSOE claimed victory.^[155] If no government is formed, a snap election could take place, which would constitute a record third straight time in which regular general elections were inconclusive and required a following snap election.^[160] Due to the underperformance of the right-wing bloc, Feijóo's leadership was questioned by the Spanish right-wing; Feijóo went from offering a pact to the PSOE to warning of a rupture if Sánchez is confirmed prime minister with the support of separatists.^[171]

In the wake of the election results, the Catalan party Junts—led by former Catalan president and fugitive Carles Puigdemont—was widely seen as being the kingmaker, with both blocs having to rely on their favourable vote to form a government, likely coupled with further concessions on Catalan independence.^{[172][173][174]} The election of the president of the Congress of Deputies—or speaker—on 17 August saw the PSOE candidate Francina Armengol winning in a vote which was seen to boost Sanchez's hopes of re-election.^[175][176]

King Felipe VI summoned the political parties for a round of talks on 21 and 22 August to decide whether to nominate a candidate for investiture.^[177] The king faced a difficult choice as, for the first time in the democratic era, two candidates—Sánchez and Feijóo—were equally intent on being nominated.^[178] Feijóo's intentions were unchanged by his recent parliamentary setback, despite calls from some factions within his party asking him to "leave the fiction" of insisting that he had the required support for his investiture.^[179][180]

Despite Feijóo's investiture being widely expected to fail, the King nominated him as candidate on 22 August.^[181] He justified his decision by stating that the PP had won the most seats and that, since no other clear majority for investiture had been evidenced during the round of talks, the tradition of nominating the leader of the largest party should continue, while allowing for the fact that other candidates could be nominated if their investiture attempt was unsuccessful.^[182][183]

Investiture Alberto Núñez Feijóo (PP)
Ballot →		27 September 2023	29 September 2023[o]
Required majority →		176 out of 350 N	Simple N
	Yes • PP (137) • Vox (33) • CCa (1) • UPN (1)	172 / 350	172 / 350
	No • PSOE (121) • Sumar (31) • ERC (7) • Junts (7) (6 on 29 Sep) • EH Bildu (6) • PNV (5) • BNG (1)	178 / 350	177 / 350
	Abstentions	0 / 350	0 / 350
	Absentees	0 / 350	0 / 350
Sources[184]

Following Feijóo's defeat, King Felipe VI summoned all parties to a new round of talks on 2 and 3 October, after which he nominated Pedro Sánchez as the next candidate to attempt the investiture.^[185][186] Upon his nomination, Sánchez commented that he was "not going to a false investiture", adding that everything agreed to secure the investiture would be "within the Constitution" and that agreements would be "transparent and known", considered to be a reference to criticisms of the amnesty proposed by pro-Catalan independence parties.^[187]

Investiture Pedro Sánchez (PSOE)
Ballot →		16 November 2023
Required majority →		176 out of 350 Y
	Yes • PSOE (121) • Sumar (31) • ERC (7) • Junts (7) • EH Bildu (6) • PNV (5) • BNG (1) • CCa (1)	179 / 350
	No • PP (137) • Vox (33) • UPN (1)	171 / 350
	Abstentions	0 / 350
	Absentees	0 / 350
Sources[188]