Gang war in Haiti

Since the 1950s, non-state armed groups have been firmly established in Haiti. This process began with the establishment of the Tonton Macoute paramilitaries by the dictatorship led by president François Duvalier, used to violently suppress dissidents.^[19][2] After the dictatorship ended with the removal of president Jean-Claude Duvalier (François' son) from power in 1986, non-state violence continued. The Tonton Macoute were disbanded, but never disarmed and thus reorganized as far-right vigilantes. Haitian political actors continued to employ armed groups to defend their interests, manipulate elections and suppress public unrest. In 1994, President Jean-Bertrand Aristide outlawed pro-Duvalier armed groups and disbanded the Haitian Army, but that did not solve the issue, as again, there was no disarmament. Thus, ex-soldiers and ex-militiamen further swelled the ranks of unofficial militant factions. From 1994 to 2004, a de facto anti-Arisitide insurgency took place in Port-au-Prince, as ex-soldiers attacked the government.^[19] In response to the chaos, youth set up self-defense groups, called chimères,^[2] which were supported by the police and the government to shore up its position. Receiving de facto state support from Aristide's Fanmi Lavalas party, the youth gangs took control of entire communes and became increasingly independent-minded.^[20] U.S. diplomat Daniel Lewis Foote argued, "Aristide started [the gangs] on purpose in the early 1980s, as a voice, as a way to get some power [for ordinary Hatians], [...] and they morphed over the years."^[21]

After the 2010 Haiti earthquake, younger and more ruthless gangs overcame the dominance of older more politically-aligned gangs. The armed youth groups grew increasingly powerful.^[22] The earthquake also resulted in the mass breakout of criminals from damaged prisons in Haiti.^[21] The MINUSTAH, a United Nations peacekeeping operation in Haiti started after the end of the 2004 coup d'état, failed to contain the unrest and committed abuses of its own.^[21] Since the end of the MINUSTAH in October 2017, there has been an increase in the amount of gang-related violence, as well as an increase in the amount of gang-related violence against civilians, notably the 2018 Port-au-Prince massacre, in which 25 civilians were killed.^[23][24]

From 2017 to 2021, Haiti's political leadership became embroiled in a crisis, and the Haitian Parliament entered a deadlock, public administration gradually ceased to operate by a lack of funding, and the judicial system effectively fell apart.^[25] Scheduled elections were repeatedly postponed. The economy of Haiti suffered under the repeated natural disasters and the growing unrest, which further contributed to the crisis.^[11] The Vox journalist Ellen Ioanes summarized that "Haiti has faced serious and compounding crises, including a devastating 2010 earthquake, floods, cholera outbreaks, hurricanes, and corrupt, dictatorial, and incompetent leaders".^[21] Gangs stepped into the power vacuum, seizing political power through co-operative politicians and economic control through protection rackets, kidnappings and murders.^[25]

By 2022, researchers estimated that about 200 gangs operated across Haiti. Of these, half were located in Port-au-Prince. The more influential gangs control large swathes of territory, including entire municipalities and communes.^[22]

• "G9 alliance",^[26] officially Fòs Revolisyonè G9 an Fanmi e Alye (Revolutionary Forces of the G9 Family and allies):^[27] It was founded and is led by Jimmy Chérizier, nicknamed Barbecue, an ex-police officer.^[27][28] G9 is based in the capital's communes of Delmas, Pétion-Ville and parts of Carrefour. The G9 alliance includes many former soldiers and policemen in its ranks and was long connected to the PHTK party until distancing itself after Ariel Henry became president. The G9 now portrays itself as a revolutionary organization,^[29] and has begun to create a nation-wide alliance network dubbed "G20".^[28]
  • Delmas 6 Gang: Personal gang of Jimmy Chérizier, overall head of G9.^[28] The gang was already operating while Chérizier was still an active police officer, signifying the gang's strong links to the Haitian security forces.^[2]
  • "Baz Pilate": One of the capital's most important gangs, mainly consisting of ex-SWAT elite police.^[30]
  • Baz Krache Dife^[28]
  • Nan Ti Bwa^[28]
  • Simon Pelé's gang^[28]
  • Baz Nan Chabon, Waf Jérémie^[28]
  • Nan Boston,^[28] also called "Boston gang"^[31]
  • Belekou gang^[28][31]
• "G-Pep": This gang alliance was formed in direct response to G9. It was organized by the Nan Brooklyn gang and its head Jean Pierre Gabriel (alias "Ti Gabriel"). The G-Pep is believed to be connected to Haitian opposition parties and/or "a well-known Haitian businessman". It is centered on Port-au-Prince's Cité Soleil.^[30]
  • Nan Brooklyn gang,^[30] also called "Brooklyn gang"^[31]
  • "400 Mawozo": The largest gang in Haiti, mainly based in Croix-des-Bouquets, Ganthier and in Port-au-Prince's Tabarre and Pétion-Ville. It has branches in Gros-Morne and the Dominican Republic and has a waiting list for aspiring members. It largely consists of deportees, former leaders of opposition groups, former smugglers and police officers. In 2022, it aligned itself with "G-Pep" after its leader was extradited to the United States from a Haitian prison on gun smuggling charges.^[1] It came to international attention due to the kidnapping of 17 U.S. missionaries, but has also been involved in extortion rackets, road hijackings, smuggling contraband, and the traffic of arms, drugs, and people along the border with the Dominican Republic.^[32]
• "Grand Ravine" and "5 Second": Two youth gangs based in Port-au-Prince's Martissant; mainly consists of vigilantes and "popular organizations" previously connected to Fanmi Lavalas.^[30]
• "Baz Galil": Based outside the capital, it mainly consists of deportees from the United States and is closely connected to the PHTK, various government agencies and other gangs.^[26]
• "Titanyen gang": Operates in Cabaret.^[31]
• "Base 5 Secondes": Operates in Village de Dieu.^[33]
• "Canaan gang": Operates in Cabaret.^[31]

In December 2023, the US sanctioned four gang leaders, one of whom—Johnson André—leads the 5 Segond gang, which the US Treasury Department identified as being responsible for over 1,000 cases of sexual violence in 2022.^[34] Rape—which only became a criminal offense in Haiti in 2005—is being used by gangs as a means of humiliating those living in rival gang neighborhoods. Abortion is illegal in Haiti, so rape victims are legally required to carry any resulting pregnancy to term.^[35]

May 2020 attacks

In May 2020, a coalition of eleven gangs (Delmas 19 gang, Delmas 6 gang, Delmas 95 gang, Nan Barozi gang, Nan Belekou gang, Nan Boston gang, Nan Chabón gang, Nan Ti Bwa gang, Pilate Base gang, Simon Pele gang, Wharf de Jeremie gang) was founded to attack several neighborhoods in Port-au-Prince as a way to secure and expand territorial control. The same month, they attacked civilians in the neighborhoods of Port-au-Prince, killing 34 people.^[37] That month, Altès, the leader of an anti-government gang switched alliances to the government and gangs allied with Jimmy "Barbecue" Chérizier to assassinate another anti-government gang leader, Ernso Nicholas. Following the assassination, many pro-government gangs seized control of anti-government gang territory.^[38] After the assassination, Chérizier, with assistance from other gangs, organized a meeting in Delmas 6 (a neighborhood controlled by Chérizier's gang) to plan an assault against neighborhoods in the area of Cité Soleil, in Port-au-Prince, perceived as anti-government, including Pont Rouge, Chancerelles and Nan Tokyo.^[4]

Chérizier's coalition went through with the attack beginning on 24 May. Chérizier's gang attacked civilians in Nan Tokyo, while Altès and another gang leader, Alectis, besieged Pont Rouge. The violence, not far from the General Inspectorate of the National Police of Haiti, lasted from the afternoon to the following day. Many fled the areas due to the violence.^[39][40] On 25 May, a displaced persons camp housing anti-government gangs was attacked by members of the coalition, primarily the Krache Dife de Delmas 6 gang, killing two people, including a minor. 24 houses were also burnt in the raid.^[4] On 26 May, Haitian armored police vehicles positioned themselves at the entrance to Nan Brooklyn. Tear gas was subsequently fired in the area, followed by gunfire targeting civilians. Nan Brooklyn, controlled by the gang of Gabriel Jean-Pierre ("Ti Gabriel"),^[41][42] was attacked again by gangs that day and the day after, killing four people, injuring twenty and setting fire to many homes.^[39] Chérizier was allegedly transported to the area in a Haitian police armored vehicle, according to witnesses in the area.^[42] In the aftermath of the attack, many new gang leaders were installed in the territories seized, which included Chancerelles, Nan Tokyo, Nan Barozi and Delmas 2 and 4.^[43] Nan Brooklyn would remain besieged until July, as the siege culminated in a massacre that resulted in the death of 145.^[41] By the end of the month, the coalition had been dissolved.^[37]

Formation of G9 Alliance

After those attacks, in a video on YouTube, another coalition of nine gangs was announced to be founded in Port-au-Prince in June 2020, which became the "G9 Alliance" led by Chérizier.^[2][27] All of the member gangs had previous links to the ruling PHTK party of President Jovenel Moïse.^[36] The coalition is led by Jimmy Chérizier. Since the coalition was founded, it has been responsible for multiple massacres against civilians and clashes with other rival gangs. From 2020 to 2021, the G9 was responsible for a dozen massacres, in which at least 200 people were killed.^[27] The G9 was believed to have had close ties to the government of Moïse, which was accused of large-scale corruption. The coalition members frequently evaded prosecution after the massacres and the clashes. Chérizier stood out in that regard because despite the arrest warrants against him, he continued to move freely and to maintain an active presence on social media with no effective attempts by Haitian government forces to arrest him. The G9 also began attacking neighborhoods in which civilians protested against the president and started clashes against rival gangs with the support of the police.^[27][44]

In response to the growing dominance of G9, a rival gang alliance, called "G-Pep", was founded^[45] in July 2020. It consisted of mainly those gangs in Port-au-Prince's Cité Soleil who were strongly opposed to joining G9.^[2] G-Pep was suspected of connection to various opposition parties and so opposed G9 and its ties to Moïse.^[46] In the following months, both gang alliance began to expand beyond their initial areas of operation.^[2]

Escalation

After the assassination of Jovenel Moïse, on 7 July 2021, the G9 started to help the government in the manhunt against the 28 foreign perpetrators. After the assassination, Ariel Henry, who some believe to be linked to the killing, became acting president of Haiti. That was followed by an increase in violence,^[47] as the gangs exploited the government's weakness.^[2] On 12 May 2021, during a clash with G-Pep, Chérizier was reported to be wounded.^[48] After the death of his suspected ally Moïse, G9 leader Jimmy Chérizier increasingly voiced political ambitions and began to openly oppose the Haitian government of Henry. On 17 October 2021, G9 forced President Henry to flee an official commemoration event, then began a month-long blockade of the country's largest oil terminal. Though G9 initially declared that it would lift the blockade only if the government resigned, Henry refused to step down; instead, both sides eventually agreed to a secret deal, and G9 retreated from the oil terminal.^[2] In general, Henry holds only limited power, and the U.S. diplomat Daniel Lewis Foote described the Haitian President as "kind of a clown. [The gangs] in several instances have made him pay them a bunch of money in order for him to attend an event or hold a ceremony — and then they won't let him do it."^[21]

By 2022, most gangs in the capital had aligned themselves with either G9 or G-Pep.^[22] From April to May, the Battle of Plaine du Cul-de-Sac was fought between 400 Mawozo and two other gangs, Chen Mechan and G-9 An Fanmi e Alye; the fighting caused about 200 deaths.^[49] In May 2022, the powerful 400 Mawozo gang aligned itself with G-Pep, greatly improving the latter's position in the gang war and causing a further escalation of violence.^[2] On 10 June, the 5 Seconds Village de Dieu gang captured the Court of First Instance of Port-au-Prince.^[2] On 8 and 9 July 2022, the violence between the two gangs increased after the start of street battles in Port-au Prince that killed 89 people and injured 74.^[10] The battle caused the nearby Varreux field terminal, the country's largest fuel depot, to pause operations and led to a drastic shortage in fuel as two fuel tankers were unable to be unloaded. Doctors Without Borders has stated that the organization has been unable to access the slum because of the violence.^[50] In September, amid the increase of the price of the fuel for the socioeconomic crisis, the G9 began a blockade of the Varreux fuel terminal. On 6 November, after two weeks of negotiations with the Haitian government and after an armed offensive launched by the Haitian National Police, the G9 gang coalition relinquished control of the Varreux fuel terminal.^[51]

From late 2022, an anti-gang bwa kale vigilante movement emerged to attack and kill any gang members. The vigilantes often burned captured gang members alive.^[3][15] The vigilantes also turned against regular security forces and murdered at least one police officer who had no known gang connections.

The gangs responded to the growth of the vigilante groups with counter-attacks that killed community leaders who expressed support for self-defense actions.^[11] In January 2023, 18 police officers were murdered in Port-au-Prince by the Gan Grif gang. This prompted riots organized by the police as well as Fantom 509, a police-allied gang.^[52] By March 2023, Haitian officials speculated that up to 90% of the capital was controlled by gangs.^[14] In April 2023, three gangs, namely Titanyen, Base 5 Secondes and Canaan, conducted an "offensive" in the Cabaret commune, outside Port-au-Prince, in an attempt to break a blockade imposed by local self-defense groups. At least 100 people were killed in the fighting. On 14 April, another battle erupted in Port-au-Prince's Cité Soleil between G-Pep's Nan Brooklyn gang and G9's Belekou and Boston gangs. The clash lasted six days and resulted in at least 70 deaths.^[31] Lynchings of gang members by vigilantes grew in frequency: 30 lynchings were reported in May, double the number in April, which killed 150 people.^[53] In Pétion-Ville, checkpoints were established by residents and identity checks on strangers ran to identify gang members,^[54] while machetes were also distributed in the capital in an effort to curb the gang violence.^[55] In response to the growth of the bwa kale movement, President Ariel Henry asked that the initiators of the movement "calm down" and hand over suspected bandits and gang members to the police.^[56]

By mid-2023, the gang war between G9 and G-Pep continued unabated,^[13][3] and the resistance by anti-gang vigilantes also grew in scope. Thousands of people were displaced by the clashes.^[11] The severity of the ongoing gang war in Haiti has led to the United Nations Security Council authorizing a one-year deployment of an international force led by Kenya to help the Haitian government deal with the crisis.^[57][16] Chérizier declared that G9 would resist if an international intervention force committed "human rights abuses" and claimed that it would "be a fight of the Haitian people to save the dignity of our country."^[11]

On 1 November, the Grand Ravine gang, led by Ti Lapli, launched attacks against the Mariani area, sparking over 2,400 civilians to leave their homes and killing one police officer.^[58] The gangs gained control over offices for the National Directorate for Water and Sanitation (DINEPA) in the area, which are used to supply water to other areas in Port-au-Prince. It was believed that the occupation endangered the safety of the water supply.^[59]

On 8 December, the United States Treasury Department announced sanctions placed on four Haitian gang leaders- Johnson André ("Izo"), Renel Destina ("Ti Lapli"), Vitel'Homme Innocent and Wilson Joseph ("Lanmò San Jou")- for human rights violations.^[60][34]

On 12 December, the Haitian National Police launched an operation from Carrefour^[61] into Mariani, with an assault involving excavators resulting in the bulldozing and burning down of many houses around the market alleged to have been used by gang members. Several civilians in the area were injured in the clashes which reportedly lasted till around 3:00 PM in the afternoon.^[62] In a 20 December press conference, the Haitian national police announced its intention to conduct greater police operations in Port-au-Prince to protect civilians, regulate traffic and stem gang violence during the end-of-year period. Intensified police presences would be instated throughout the city.^[63]

On 26 December, the US Embassy in Port-au-Prince went on lockdown after gunfire was heard in the area.^[64]

In a 2023 UN report Robert Muggah estimated there could be as many as half a million weapons in the country. When interviewed in 2024, he said that over 80 percent of those traced by the ATF from 2020 and 2022 arrived from the U.S.^[65]

A UN report issued on 15 January 2024 indicated that in the preceding year there had been 2,490 kidnappings and 4,789 reported homicides.^[65] On 1 February, Joly Germine, the leader of the 400 Mawozo gang, pleaded guilty in a U.S. federal court to smuggling arms^[65] such as "AK-47s, AR-15s, an M4 carbine rifle, an M1A rifle, and a .50 caliber rifle, described by the ATF as a military weapon," into Haiti, piloting the operation from a Haitian prison.^[66]

Ousting of Ariel Henry

On 29 February 2024, a wave of violence broke out while Haitian Prime Minister Ariel Henry, also acting as its president, traveled to Kenya and signed an agreement designed to circumvent the Kenyan High Court's earlier ruling declaring the UN-backed operation to assist Haitian government as unconstitutional under Kenyan law.^[67] Gunfire was directed at the country's main airport and many businesses in the area, with two police stations seized,^[68] forcing businesses to close and Sunrise Airways to cease operations. On 29 February, The Bahamas, Bangladesh, Barbados, Benin and Chad pledged troops to support the security situation in Haiti by pledging troops to the Multinational Security Support Mission in Haiti, with the largest being Benin's commitment of 1,500 soldiers, in addition to the agreement with Kenya providing 1,000 police officers.^[69][70] Belize and Antigua and Barbuda have also pledged people to assist with the mission.^[71] U.S. officials said that American troops will not be sent.^[72]

Gang leader Jimmy Chérizier released a video stating that he intended to prevent Ariel Henry from returning to Haiti with the operation.^[73] On 1 March, when asked if it was safe for him to return to Haiti, Henry shrugged.^[74] Chérizier was said to have the support of other gangs as part of a coalition named "Viv Ansanm" (Haitian Creole for "living together"); though that coalition was quick to dissolve, other gangs still launched attacks together with Chérizier's G9 gang.^[75] Gunfire at the airport on 1 March caused damage to some aircraft.^[76]

On 2 and 3 March, armed gangs stormed the two largest prisons in Haiti, one in Croix des Bouquets, the other in Port-au-Prince,^[77] resulting in more than 4,700 inmates escaping.^[74] With a force of only 9,000 at work, police were undermanned and outgunned by the gangs.^[68] The gang leaders, including Jimmy Chérizier, demanded Henry's resignation. In particular, Chérizier said his goal was to capture Haiti's police chief and government ministers and prevent Henry’s return.^[78]

Over 12 people have been killed in the conflict,^[77] while the UN estimates that 15,000 people have fled the violence in Port-au-Prince.^[78] On 3 March, the Haitian government, under Finance Minister Michel Patrick Boisvert, declared a 72-hour state of emergency and a nighttime curfew in an attempt to curb the violence and chaos;^[79] the government noted "increasingly violent criminal acts" throughout Port-au-Prince, including vandalism, kidnapping and murder.^[80] According to the United Nations, gangs were controling around 80% of Port-au-Prince.^[74]

On 4 March, at around 1 p.m. local time, armed gangs attacked the heavily fortified Toussaint Louverture International Airport, exchanging gunfire with police and the Haitian Armed Forces in an attempt to take control of the facility after rumors that Henry would return to the country,^[81] fueling speculation that an alliance between rival gangs was forming to overthrow the Haitian government.^[82] In particular, Johnson André, the leader of the 5 Seconds gang, appeared also to be linked to the attacks.^[74] Other riot leaders, including Guy Philippe, reportedly aimed for the presidency of Haiti.^[83] Guy Philippe led the 2004 coup d'état.^[83] Flights were grounded as the airport was shut down, and the Stade Sylvio Cator^[80] and national bank^[79] were also attacked. Other public institutions, including schools and banks, have been closed.^[84]

On 5 March, United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres stated his desire for "urgent action, particularly in providing financial support for the multinational security support mission".^[85] Later that day, Henry landed at Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport in Puerto Rico in an attempt to return to Haiti to control the violence.^[84] While Ariel Henry was abroad making arrangements for 1,000 Kenyan police to arrive in Haiti, fighting erupted in the capital with gangs assaulting several government buildings, including the National Palace. It was reported that Jimmy Chérizier is leading the gang forces' assault.^[86]

In the next days, US military airlifted its embassy personnel from the country.^[87] The European Union also evacuated all diplomatic staff from Haiti.^[88]

On 6 March, a police station in Bas-Peu-de-Chose was attacked and burned down by gangs.^[89] The privately-owned Caribbean Port Services (CPS) terminal at the Port international de Port-au-Prince, notable for its key role in providing food and supplies, was also attacked and looted, resulting in port operations being suspended indefinitely.^[90]

On 7 March, the state of emergency in the Ouest Department, including a nightly curfew and bans on protests, was extended from three days to a month (3 April).^[89]

On 8 March, gangs attacked two police stations near the National Palace,^[91] as well as the palace itself,^[92] and burned down the interior ministry.^[93] The security perimeter around Toussaint Louverture International Airport was breached by gangs, while gunfire was heard throughout Port-au-Prince.^[94]

On 9 March, gangs attacked and occupied the headquarters of the Institute of Social Welfare in Port-Au Prince, while the government of the Dominican Republic announced plans to evacuate its officials and citizens from Port-au-Prince.^[95][96] A large counteroffensive against the gangs was launched by the Haitian police force in the later hours of the night after three more police stations were attacked and burned down, with reports coming in that multiple Haitian police cars were stolen and are now patrolling the area.^[97][98]

On 10 March, the United States evacuated its nonessential staff from its embassy in Port-au-Prince via helicopter, while adding additional marine corps to the embassy to defend it.^[99] The German embassy as well was evacuated by elements of the Dominican Republic Airforce.^[100]The Prime Minister of Jamaica announced on March 11 that representatives from eight countries, including France, Canada, and the United States, would meet in Kingston, Jamaica, to discuss the ongoing violence.^[101]

On 11 March, CARICOM launched an emergency meeting to discuss the situation in Haiti.^[102] Interior Cabinet Secretary Kithure Kindiki of Kenya also announced that its police officers are currently in pre-deployment phase, being ready to deploy to Haiti.^[103] However, the police force has still not been given a date for when it will deploy, which has caused a lot of international pressure from the United States and multiple meetings between the United States and Kenya over the deployment,^[104] with one being held on 11 March between Kenyan President William Ruto and U.S. Secretary of State Antony Blinken. Toussaint Louverture International Airport was closed.^[105] Secretary Blinken later announced that the United States would offer another $100 million to the Kenyan mission in Haiti.^[106]

On 12 March, Ariel Henry declared that he would resign amid massive pressure from the international community.^[107]

Sheila Cherfilus-McCormick, a congresswoman of Haitian descent, released a press statement saying that the gang take over of Haiti posed a security threat to the United States and warned of violence spilling over to the United States.^[108] She also told reporters that she would be holding a meeting with Haitian leaders from South Florida to discuss the country's ongoing conflict.^[109] U.S. Department of Defense officials stated later that they are "alerted" about a potential maritime "mass migration" from Haiti. Use of the United States Navy has been considered to stop the flow of migration.^{[110] [111]} Around 1 pm ET, Kenyan President Ruto announced that the planned intervention in Haiti will be delayed due to the resignation of the Prime Minister.^[112] Radio Television Caraibes moved its studio out of the capital due to gangs capturing it.^[113]

On 13 March, Kenyan President William Ruto announced that the mission to Haiti, while paused, would still move forward.^[114] The United States announced a plan to contribute $40 million for the Multinational Mission in Haiti.^[114] Florida Governor Ron DeSantis announced plans to deploy 250 additional soldiers to help deal with a possible crisis in Florida, including the Florida National Guard.^[115] The same day a new US Fleet Antiterrorism Security Team was announced to be on the way to protect the US embassy,^[116] and a YouTube personality YourFellowArab (Addison Pierre Maalouf) specialized in touring dangerous places was allegedly kidnapped on his way to interview Jimmy Chérizier. Members of the 400 Mawozo gang demanded a ransom of $600,000 for his release. The U.S. State Department confirmed that a U.S. citizen had been kidnapped.^[117]

On 19 March, CARICOM and United Nations officials appointed seven seats out of eight of the presidential council. The formation of the full council was delayed because of December 21 Agreement group backing Prime Minister Henry.^[118]

On 21 March, one of the gang leaders, known only as Makandal, was killed by the bwa kale in Petion-Ville.^[119] A day later, Ernst Julme, the leader of Delmas 95, was killed by police in the same area. Julme's death was described as a significant setback for Cherizier in his attempts to take over Port-au-Prince.^[120][121]

On 25 April, Ariel Henry resigned.^[122]

Works cited

• Walker, Summer (October 2022). Gangs of Haiti: Expansion, power and an escalating crisis (PDF). Geneva: Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime. Retrieved 30 September 2023.
• Regional Overview Latin America & the Caribbean April 2023 (PDF). Geneva: ACLED. May 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2023.
• Killing with Impunity: State-Sanctioned Massacres in Haiti (PDF). Harvard. April 2021. Retrieved 26 December 2023.
• Attacks on deprived neighborhoods (PDF). RNDDH. 23 June 2020. Retrieved 26 December 2023.
• Massacres in Bel-Air and Cité Soleil Under the Indifferent Gaze of State Authorities (PDF). RNDDH. 20 May 2021. Retrieved 26 December 2023.