The Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands languages (also Barrier Islands–Batak languages or Sumatran languages) are a group of Malayo-Polynesian languages spoken by the Batak and related peoples in the interior of North Sumatra and by the Nias, Mentawai people, and others on the Barrier islands (Simeulue, Nias, and Mentawai Islands Regency) off the western coast of Sumatra, Indonesia.
| Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands | |
|---|---|
| Barrier Islands–Batak, Sumatran | |
| Geographic distribution | Sumatra, Indonesia |
| Linguistic classification | Austronesian
|
| Proto-language | Proto-Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands (Proto-Sumatran) |
| Glottolog | nort2829 |
Classification
The languages of the Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands subgroup are:
This subgroup was first proposed by Lafeber (1922), who called it "Batak-Nias".[1] Nothofer (1986) presented lexical and phonological evidence in support of this subgroup, calling it "Barrier Islands–Batak".[2]
The position of the highly divergent Enggano language is controversial. Both Lafeber (1922) and Nothofer (1986) include Enggano as a probable daughter language.[1][2] This is rejected by Edwards (2015) who considers Enggano a primary branch of the Malayo-Polynesian languages.[3] Recent research by Smith (2017) however supports the inclusion of Enggano within his tentative "Sumatran" subgroup, which is an extended version of Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands that further includes the Nasal language spoken in Bengkulu in southwestern Sumatra.[4] Smith's proposal is supported by Billings & McDonnell (2022) who classify the Sumatran languages as follows:[5]
- Batak languages
- Northern Barrier Islands (Simeulue)
- Central Barrier Islands (Sikule, Nias)
- Mentawai
- Gayo
- Nasal
- Enggano
As phonological evidence for the inclusion of these languages with the Sumatran subgroup they propose:[5]
- Mergers
- PMP *j, *g > Proto-Sumatran *g
- PMP *z, *d > Proto-Sumatran *d
- PMP *ñ, *n > Proto-Sumatran *n
- PMP *R, *r > Proto-Sumatran *r
- PMP *h > Proto-Sumatran zero
- Shift (sound change)
- PMP *q > Proto-Sumatran *h
Lexicon
Edwards (2015: 78)[3] provides the following table comparing body part vocabulary items across various languages of the Barrier Islands. Edwards (2015: 89) considers the aberrant Enggano language as not part of the Barrier Islands-Batak languages.
| Gloss | PMP | Enggano | Mentawai | Nias | Sikule | Simeulue |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| head | *qulu | e-(ʔ)udu | uteʔ | həɡə | tuhu | ulu |
| hair, head | *buhek | e-pududui | alai | bu | bu | buʔ |
| face | *daqih | e-baka | mata | bava | muko | bobaŋon |
| eye | *mata | e-baka | mata | hərə | mata | mata |
| nose | *ijuŋ | ẽ-pãnũ | asak | ixu | nixu | ixuŋ |
| mouth | *baqbaq | e-kaʔa | ŋaŋa | bava | bafa | ba(ʔ)ba |
| lips | *biRbiR | e-ukudipo | bibo | beve | befe | befil |
| tongue | *dilaq | e-dio† | lila, ʤala | lela | l/nela | dila |
| tooth | *nipen | e-kaʔa | ʧon | ifɨ | ifɨ | ehen |
| ear | *taliŋa | e-kadiha | taliŋa | taliŋa | ɡuɡuyu | (k)oeuʔ |
| neck | *liqeR | ẽ-ũʔũ | lolokat | baɡi | ʔoɡu | leŋɡəl |
| hand | *kamay/*lima | e-ʔapo | kabei | bələxa, taŋa | taŋa | kaoʔ, siʔu |
| fingernail | *kanuhkuh | ẽ-kanũʔũnũ | sulet | siʔa | tena | tenab˺ |
| breast | *titi(q)/*susu | e-koko | tottot | susu | totoʔ | totuʔ |
| belly | *tian | e-kitai | baɣa | talu | amatan | besil |
| leg | *qaqay | e-ae | dere | ahe | ae | haɨ |
| knee | *tuhud | ẽ-pũʔũ u-ae | bókolo | tuhi | bohun | boxul |
| hair, body | *bulu | e-pududui | bulu | bu | bu | buʔ |
| skin | *kulit | e-ʔudi | kulit | uli | bebi | bebiʔ |
| meat/flesh | *hesi | e-heda | akkelak | naɡole | ö(h)i | isi |
| fat/grease | *miñak/*himaR | ẽ-mĩnãʔ㇠| lainak | tavə | tafɨ | tafɨ |
| bone | *tuqelaŋ | e-ʔaa | tolat | təla | tɨ/öla | sod˺ |
| heart | *pusuq | e-báhau, ẽ-kẽmã | teinuŋ | tədə | ɨlaxa, oho | ate |
| blood | *daRaq | e-kiaki | loɣau | do | do | dala |
| liver | *qatay | ẽ-nĩũnĩũ | atei | ate | bala | |
| urine | *iheq | ẽ-ĩkõ | kia | iə | xiɨ | k/xiɨ |
| excrement | *taqi | e-kai | tanai | tai | tai | tai |
Proto-Sumatran lexical innovations listed by Billings & McDonnell (2022) are:[5]
| English gloss | Proto-Sumatran | Pre-Gayo | Proto-Batak languages | Proto-Northern Barrier Islands | Proto-Central Barrier Islands | Pre-Mentawai | Nasal |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| friend | *alay | *aley | *alay | *le | *aley | ||
| to kiss | *aŋgəh | *aŋgəh | *aŋkə | *ago | |||
| ginger | *bahiŋ | *bahiŋ | *baiŋ | ||||
| heron | *baruŋ | *baruŋ | *baluŋ | ||||
| bat | *bəŋkik | *bəŋkik | *bəŋiʔ | *bəgi | |||
| maggot | *bərŋay | *bərŋey | *bəŋay | ||||
| mountain | *dələg | *dələg | *dələk | *lələ | *lelew | ||
| nest | *hasar | *asay | *asar | hasal | |||
| sibling in law | *lakun | *lakun | *laʔun | *laʔo | *lakun | ||
| one | *sada | *sara | *sada | *sara | *sara | *sara | |
| snail | *ciəh | *cih | siyuh | ||||
| roof | *tarub | *tarub | *talup | ||||
| low | *təruh | *tuyuh | *təruh | *təlu | *tou | ||
| midday | *tigər | *tigər | *tikəl | *sixo | |||
| smoke | *timbər | *timbər | *timbəl | *simbo | *timbo | ||
| to ask for | *tindaw | *tiro | *tindaw | *sində | *tidow | ||
| rattan | *puləgəs | *puləgəs | *pulege |