User:PericlesofAthens/Draft for Cleopatra

The name Cleopatra originates from the Greek name Kleopatra (Greek: Κλεοπάτρα), meaning "glory of the father" in the feminine form.^[9] It is derived from kleos (Greek: κλέος), "glory", combined with pater (Greek: πατήρ), "father", using the genitive form patros (Greek: πατρος).^[9] The masculine form would have been written either as Kleopatros (Greek: Κλεόπατρος) or Patroklos (Greek: Πάτροκλος).^[9] Cleopatra was the name of Alexander the Great's sister, as well as Cleopatra Alcyone, husband of Meleager in Greek mythology.^[10] Through the marriage of Ptolemy V Epiphanes and Cleopatra I Syra (a Seleucid princess), the name entered the Ptolemaic dynasty.^[11]

Early childhood

Cleopatra VII was born in early 69 BC to the ruling Ptolemaic pharaoh Ptolemy XII Auletes and an unknown mother,^[12] perhaps Ptolemy XII's wife Cleopatra VI Tryphaena.^{[13][14][note 2]} Cleopatra had two sisters, Berenice IV and Arsinoe IV, and two brothers, Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV.^[15] Her childhood tutor was Philostratos, from whom she learned the Greek arts of oration and philosophy.^[16] Cleopatra presumably also studied at the Musaeum, including the Library of Alexandria, and wrote Greek medical works that were perhaps inspired by physicians at her father's royal court.^[17]

Ptolemaic pharaohs were crowned by Egyptian priests of Ptah at Memphis, Egypt, but they spoke Greek and governed Egypt as Hellenistic-Greek monarchs from the multicultural and largely-Greek city of Alexandria established by Alexander the Great of Macedon, refusing to learn the native Egyptian language.^{[18][note 3]} In contrast, Cleopatra could understand and speak multiple languages by adulthood, including Egyptian, Ethiopian, Trogodyte, Hebrew (or Aramaic), Arabic, the Syrian language (Syriac?), Median, Parthian, and Latin, although her Roman colleagues would have preferred to speak with her in her native Koine Greek.^[19] While Cleopatra could read and write in Greek, Egyptian, and Latin, it is not known for certain if she could do the same in the other languages she spoke.^[20] Aside from Greek, Egyptian, and Latin, these languages reflected the expansionist territorial ambitions of Cleopatra and her desire to restore African and Asian territories that once belonged to the Ptolemaic Empire.^[21]

Roman interventionism in Egypt predated the reign of Cleopatra VII.^[22] When Ptolemy IX Lathyros died in late 81 BC he was succeeded by his daughter Berenice III.^[23] However, with opposition building at the royal court against the idea of a sole-reigning female monarch, Berenice III accepted joint rule and marriage with her cousin and stepson Ptolemy XI Alexander II, an arrangement made by the dictator Sulla, the first powerful Roman figure to intervene directly in the dynastic affairs of kingdoms neighboring the Roman Republic to the east.^[23] The incestuous Ptolemaic practice of sibling marriage was introduced by Ptolemy II and his sister Arsinoe II, a long-held royal Egyptian practice but one that was loathed by contemporary Greeks who considered it to be scandalous.^[24][25] By the reign of Cleopatra VII, however, it was considered a normal arrangement for Ptolemaic rulers.^[24][25] Ptolemy XI had his stepmother-wife killed shortly after their marriage in 80 BC, but he was also killed soon thereafter in the resulting riot over the assassination.^[23] Since it was either Ptolemy X Alexander I or Ptolemy IX who willed the Ptolemaic Kingdom to Rome as collateral for loans, the Romans had legal grounds to take over Egypt.^[23] However, they chose instead to carve up the Ptolemaic realm to be ruled by Ptolemy IX's two illegitimate sons, bestowing Cyprus to Ptolemy of Cyprus and Egypt to Ptolemy XII.^[23]

Ptolemy XII was given the epithet "Auletes" (i.e. "the flute-player") due to his adoption of the title "New Dionysos" and alleged flute-playing performances in the Dionysian festivals.^[27] He gained a reputation as an aloof monarch who enjoyed a life of luxury, while causing dynastic troubles with the expulsion of his sister-wife Cleopatra VI from the court in late 69 BC, a few months after the birth of Cleopatra VII.^[28] His three younger children were all born in the more than decade-long absence of his wife.^[29] In 65 BC the Roman censor Marcus Licinius Crassus argued before the Roman Senate that Ptolemaic Egypt should be annexed (perhaps based on the previous will in exchange for loans), but his proposal was scuttled by the rhetorical efforts of Cicero.^[30] Ptolemy XII responded to the threat of possible annexation by offering remuneration and lavish gifts to powerful Roman statesmen and military commanders, such as Pompey the Great during his campaign against Mithridates VI of Pontus in the Third Mithridatic War (73-63 BC) and eventually Julius Caesar after the latter became consul in 59 BC.^[31] However, Ptolemy XII's profligate behavior bankrupted him and he was forced to acquire loans from the Roman banker Gaius Rabirius Postumus.^[32] His increase of the tax rate to pay for these expenditures angered the poor and led to strikes by farmers.^[32]

In 58 BC the Romans annexed Cyprus and drove Ptolemy XII's brother Ptolemy of Cyprus to commit suicide rather than exile to Paphos as a priest of Apollo.^[33] Ptolemy XII remained publicly silent on the death of his brother, a decision which, along with ceding traditional Ptolemaic territory to the Romans, damaged his credibility among subjects already enraged by his economic policies.^[33] Whether by force or voluntary action Ptolemy XII left Egypt in exile, first to Rhodes, where his Roman host Cato the Younger verbally castigated him for losing his own kingdom, then to Athens, where he erected a monument in honor of his father Ptolemy IX and half-sister Berenice III, and finally to the villa of the triumvir Pompey in the Alban Hills near Praeneste.^[33] Ptolemy XII spent nearly a year there on the outskirts of Rome, ostensibly accompanied by his then 11-year-old daughter Cleopatra.^[33] Events in Egypt are unclear around this time, as it is thought Ptolemy XII's estranged wife Cleopatra VI ruled jointly with their daughter Berenice IV before being ousted by the latter and dying at an uncertain date.^[34] Berenice IV sent an embassy to Rome to advocate for her rule and oppose the reinstatement of her father Ptolemy XII, but Ptolemy employed his assassins to kill the leaders of the embassy, an incident that was covered up by his powerful Roman supporters.^[35] When the Roman Senate denied Ptolemy XII the offer of an armed escort and provisions for a return to Egypt, he decided to leave Rome in late 57 BC and reside in the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus.^[36]

To shore up her legitimacy among her subjects, Berenice III married Archelaos, an alleged descendant of Mithridates VI of Pontus, but the Romans, especially the desperate financiers of Ptolemy XII such as Rabirius Postumus, were determined to restore Ptolemy XII.^[38] Pompey persuaded Aulus Gabinius, the Roman governor of Syria, to invade Egypt and restore Ptolemy XII, offering him 10,000 talents for the proposed mission.^[38] Although it put him at odds with Roman law, Gabinius invaded Egypt in the spring of 55 BC by way of Hasmonean Judea, where Hyrcanus II had Antipater the Idumaean, father of Herod the Great, furnish the Roman-led army with supplies.^[38] Under Gabinius' command was the young cavalry officer Mark Antony, who distinguished himself by preventing Ptolemy XII from massacring the inhabitants of Pelousion and rescuing the body of Archelaos after the latter was killed in another battle, ensuring him a proper royal burial.^[39] Cleopatra, now 14 years of age, would have traveled with the Roman expedition into Egypt; years later Mark Antony would profess that he had fallen in love with her at this time.^[39]

Gabinius was put on trial in Rome for abusing his authority, for which he was acquitted, but his second trial for accepting bribes led to his exile, from which he was recalled seven years later in 48 BC by Julius Caesar.^[40] Crassus replaced him as governor of Syria and extended his provincial command to Egypt, but he was killed by the Parthians at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC.^[40] Ptolemy XII had his rival daughter Berenice and her wealthy supporters executed, seizing their properties while allowing Gabinius' Roman garrison—the Gabiniani—to harass people in the streets of Alexandria and installing his longtime Roman financier Rabirius Postumus as his chief financial officer.^[41] Rabirius Postumus was unable to collect the entirety of Ptolemy XII's debt by the time of the latter's death, hence it was passed on to his successors Cleopatra VII and Ptolemy XIII.^[42] Within a year Rabirius Postumus was placed under protective custody and sent back to Rome after his life was endangered for draining Egypt of its resources.^[42] Despite these problems, during the last four years of his reign Ptolemy XII, who died of natural causes, created a will designating Cleopatra VII and Ptolemy XIII as his joint heirs, oversaw major construction projects such as the completion of the Temple of Edfu and establishment of the Dendera Temple, and stabilized the economy that was largely reliant on trade with East Africa and India.^[43] In 52 BC Cleopatra was made a regent of Ptolemy XII as indicated by an inscription in the Temple of Hathor at Dendera.^[44]

Accession to the throne

Ptolemy XII had died sometime before 22 March 51 BC, the date of Cleopatra's first known act as queen: her voyage to Hermonthis, near Thebes, to install a new sacred Buchis bull, worshiped as an intermediary for the god Montu in the Ancient Egyptian religion.^[45][7] It is unknown if Cleopatra ever officially married her brother Ptolemy XIII.^[7] By August 29 official documents started listing Cleopatra as the sole ruler, evidence that she had rejected her brother as a co-ruler by this point.^[46] Cleopatra faced several pressing issues and emergencies shortly after taking the throne, including food shortages and famine caused by drought and low-level flooding of the Nile, assaults by gangs of armed brigands, and lawless behavior instigated by the Gabiniani, the now unemployed and assimilated Roman soldiers left by Gabinius to garrison Egypt.^[47] Inheriting her father's debts, Cleopatra also owed the Roman Republic 17.5 million drachmas by the time Julius Caesar arrived at Alexandria in 48 BC.^[46]

In 50 BC Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, proconsul of Syria, sent his two eldest sons to Egypt, most likely to negotiate with the Gabiniani and recruit them as soldiers in the desperate defense of Syria against the Parthians.^[48] However, the Gabiniani tortured and murdered these two, perhaps with secret encouragement by rogue senior administrators in Cleopatra's court such as the eunuch regent Potheinos, causing Cleopatra to send the Gabiniani culprits to Bibulus as prisoners awaiting his judgment.^[48] Although a seemingly shrewd act by the young queen, Bibulus sent the prisoners back to her and chastised her for interfering in Roman affairs that should have been handled directly by the Roman Senate.^[49] Bibulus, siding with Pompey in Caesar's Civil War, was then charged with preventing Caesar from landing a naval fleet in Greece, a task that he failed and which ultimately allowed Julius Caesar to reach Egypt in pursuit of Pompey.^[49]

Although Cleopatra had rejected her 11-year-old brother as a joint ruler in 51 BC, Ptolemy XIII still retained strong allies, notably Potheinos, his tutor and administrator of his properties, and who the Romans, including Caesar, initially viewed as the power behind the throne.^[50] Others involved in the cabal against Cleopatra included Achillas, a prominent military commander, and Theodotus of Chios, another tutor of Ptolemy XIII.^[50] Cleopatra seems to have attempted a short-lived alliance with her brother Ptolemy XIV, but by the autumn of 50 BC Ptolemy XIII had the upper hand in their conflict and began signing documents with his name before that of his sister, followed by the establishment of his first regnal date in 49 BC.^[7][51]

Assassination of Pompey

Cleopatra and her forces were still holding their ground against Ptolemy XIII within Alexandria when Gnaeus Pompeius, son of Pompey, arrived at Alexandria in the summer of 49 BC seeking military aid on behalf of his father.^[51] After returning to Italy from the wars in Gaul and crossing the Rubicon in January of 49 BC, Caesar forced Pompey and his supporters to flee to Greece in a Roman civil war.^[52] In perhaps their last joint decree, both Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII agreed to Gnaeus Pompeius' request and sent his father 60 ships and 500 troops, including the Gabiniani, a move that helped erase some of the debt owed to Rome by the Ptolemies.^[52] The Roman writer Lucan claims that by early 48 BC Pompey named Ptolemy XIII as the legitimate sole ruler of Egypt; whether true or not Cleopatra was forced to flee Alexandria and withdraw to the region of Thebes.^[53] However, by the spring of 48 BC Cleopatra traveled to Syria with her little sister Arsinoe IV to gather an invasion force that would head to Egypt.^[54] She returned with an army, perhaps right around the time of Caesar's arrival, but her advance to Alexandria was blocked by her brother's forces, including some Gabiniani mobilized to fight against her, and she had to make camp outside Pelousion in the eastern Nile Delta.^[55]

In Greece, Caesar and Pompey's forces engaged each other at the decisive Battle of Pharsalus on 9 August 48 BC, leading to the destruction of most of Pompey's army and his forced flight to Tyre, Lebanon.^[55][56] Given his close relationship with the Ptolemies, he ultimately decided that Egypt would be his place of refuge, where he could replenish his forces.^[57] Ptolemy XIII's advisers, however, feared the idea of Pompey using Egypt as his base of power in a protracted Roman civil war.^[57] In a scheme devised by Theodotos, Pompey arrived by ship near Pelousion after being invited by written message, only to be ambushed and killed by Ptolemaic forces led by Achillas on 28 September 48 BC.^[57][56] Ptolemy XIII believed he had demonstrated his power and simultaneously diffused the situation by having Pompey's severed head sent to Caesar, who arrived in Alexandria by early October and resided at the royal palace.^[58][59] Caesar called on both Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra VII to disband their forces and reconcile with each other.^[58][60]

Relationship with Julius Caesar

Caesar's request for partial repayment of the 17.5 million drachmas owed to Rome (to pay for immediate military expenditures) was met with a response by Potheinos that it would be done later if Caesar would leave Alexandria, but this offer was rejected.^[61] Ptolemy XIII arrived at Alexnandria at the head of his army, in clear defiance of Caesar's demand that he disband and leave his army before his arrival.^[61] Cleopatra initially sent emissaries to Caesar, but upon allegedly hearing that Caesar was inclined to having affairs with royal women, she came to Alexandria to see him personally.^[61] Historian Cassius Dio records that she simply did so without informing her brother, dressing in an attractive manner and charming him with her wit and linguistic skills.^[61][62] Plutarch provides an entirely different and perhaps mythical account that alleges she was bound inside a bed sack to be smuggled into the palace to meet Caesar.^[61][6] When Ptolemy XIII realized that his sister was in the palace instead of at Pelousion and consorting directly with Caesar, Ptolemy attempted to rouse the populace of Alexandria into a riot, but he was arrested by Caesar who used his oratorical skills to calm the frenzied crowd gathered outside the palace.^[63][64] Caesar then brought Cleopatra VII and Ptolemy XIII before the assembly of Alexandria, where Caesar revealed the written will of Ptolemy XII—previously possessed by Pompey—naming Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII as his joint heirs.^[65][64] Caesar then attempted to arrange for the other two siblings, Arsinoe IV and Ptolemy XIV, to rule together over Cyprus, thus removing potential rival claimants to the Egyptian throne while also appeasing the Ptolemaic subjects still bitter over the loss of Cyprus to the Romans in 58 BC.^[66][64]

Potheinos, judging that this agreement actually favored Cleopatra over Ptolemy XIII and that the latter's army of 20,000, including the Gabiniani, could most likely defeat Caesar's army of 4,000 unsupported troops, decided to have Achillas lead their forces to Alexandria to attack both Caesar and Cleopatra.^[66][64] The resulting siege of the palace with Caesar and Cleopatra trapped inside lasted into the following year of 47 BC and included Caesar's burning of ships in the harbor that spread fires and potentially burned down part of the Library of Alexandria.^[67][60][68] After Caesar managed to execute Potheinos, Arsinoe IV joined forces with Achillas and was declared queen, but soon afterwards had her tutor Ganymedes kill Achillas and take his position as commander of her army.^[69][70] Ganymedes then tricked Caesar into requesting the presence of the erstwhile captive Ptolemy XIII as a negotiator, only to have him join the army of Arsinoe IV.^[69]

However, by March 47 BC Caesar's reinforcements arrived, including those led by Mithridates of Pergamon and Antipater the Idumaean, who would receive Roman citizenship for his timely aid (a status that would be inherited by his son Herod the Great).^[69][60] Ptolemy XIII and Arsinoe IV withdrew their forces to the Nile River, where Caesar attacked them and forced Ptolemy XIII to flee by boat, yet it capsized and he drowned (his body later found nearby in the mud).^[71][60] Ganymedes was perhaps killed in the battle, Theodotos was found years later in Asia by Marcus Brutus and executed, while Arsinoe IV was forcefully paraded in Caesar's triumph in Rome before being exiled to the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus.^[72] Cleopatra was conspicuously absent from these events and resided in the palace, most likely because she was pregnant with Caesar's child (perhaps since September 47 BC), giving birth to Caesarion on 23 June 47 BC.^[73]

Caesar's term as consul had expired at the end of 48 BC.^[72] However, his officer Mark Antony, recently returned to Rome from the battle at Pharsalus, helped to secure Caesar's election as dictator lasting for a year, until October 47 BC, providing Caesar with the legal authority to settle the dynastic dispute in Egypt.^[72] Wary of repeating the mistake of Berenice IV in having a sole-ruling female monarch, Caesar appointed 12-year-old Ptolemy XIV as 22-year-old Cleopatra VII's joint ruler in a nominal sibling marriage, but Cleopatra continued living privately with Caesar.^[74][60] The exact date at which Cyprus was returned to her control is not known, although she had a governor there by 42 BC.^[75] Before returning to Rome to attend to urgent political matters, Caesar is alleged to have joined Cleopatra for a cruise of the Nile and sightseeing of monuments, although this may be a romantic tale reflecting later well-to-do Roman proclivities and not a real historic event.^[76][60] The historian Suetonius provided considerable details about the voyage, including use of a Thalamegos pleasure barge first constructed by Ptolemy IV, which during his reign measured 300 ft (91.4 m) in length and 80 ft (24.3 m) in height and was complete with dining rooms, state rooms, holy shrines, and promenades along its two decks resembling a floating villa.^[76] Cleopatra allegedly used the Thalamegos again years later to sail to Mark Antony's provisional headquarters at Tarsos.^[77] Caesar could have had an interest in the Nile cruise owing to his fascination with geography, as he was well-read in the works of Eratosthenes and Pytheas and perhaps wanted to discover the source of the river, but his troops reportedly demanded they turn back after nearly reaching Ethiopia.^[78]

Caesar departed from Egypt in about April 47 BC.^[79] While the motive for his departure was said to be that Pharnaces II of Pontus, son of Mithridates the Great, was stirring up trouble for Rome in Anatolia and needed to be confronted, it is possible that Caesar, married to the prominent Roman woman Calpurnia, wanted to avoid being seen together with Cleopatra when she bore him their son.^[79] He left three legions in Egypt, later increased to four, under the command of the freedman Rufio, to secure Cleopatra's tenuous position but also perhaps to keep her activities in check.^[79]

Cleopatra's alleged child with Caesar was born 23 June 47 BC, as preserved on a stele at the Serapeion in Memphis.^[80][60] In the stele he was named "Pharaoh Caesar", but the Alexandrians preferred the patronymic Caesarion.^[81][60] Perhaps owing to his still childless marriage with Calpurnia, Caesar remained silent about Caesarion, and there is conflicting evidence that he publicly denied fathering him but privately accepted him as a son.^[82] Cleopatra, on the other hand, made repeated official declarations about Caesarion's parentage, with Caesar as the father.^[82]

Cleopatra VII and her nominal joint ruler Ptolemy XIV visited Rome sometime in late 46 BC, presumably without Caesarion, and were given lodging in Caesar's Villa within the Horti Caesaris.^[83] Since Cleopatra was also present in the city in 44 BC during Caesar's assassination, it is unclear if this represented a single, two-year-long trip to Rome or two separate visits, yet the latter is more likely according to historian Duane W. Roller.^[84] Like he did with their father Ptolemy XII, Julius Caesar awarded Cleopatra VII and Ptolemy XIV with the legal status of friendly and allied monarchs to Rome.^[85] Cleopatra's distinguished visitors at Caesar's villa across the Tiber included the senator Cicero, who was not flattered with her and found her to be arrogant, especially after one of her advisers failed to provide him with requested books from the Library of Alexandria.^[86] Sosigenes of Alexandria, one of the members of Cleopatra's court, aided Caesar in the calculations for the new Julian Calendar, put into effect 1 January 45 BC.^[87] The Temple of Venus Genetrix, established in the Forum of Caesar on 25 September 46 BC, contained a golden statue of Cleopatra (which still stood there during the 3rd century AD), associating the mother of Caesar's child directly with the goddess Venus, mother of the Romans.^[88] The statue also subtly linked the Egyptian goddess Isis with the Roman religion, and Caesar may have had plans to build a temple to Isis in Rome, as was voted by the Senate a year after his death.^[86] Cleopatra's presence most likely had an effect on the events at the Lupercalia festival a month before Caesar's assassination.^[89] Mark Antony attempted to place a royal diadem on Caesar's head, which the latter refused in what was most likely a staged performance, perhaps to gauge the Roman public's mood about accepting Hellenistic-style kingship.^[89] Cicero, who was present at the festival, mockingly asked where the diadem came from, an obvious reference to the Ptolemaic queen who he abhorred.^[89]

Caesar was assassinated on the Ides of March (15 March 44 BC), but Cleopatra stayed in Rome until about mid-April, in the vain hope of having Caesarion recognized as Caesar's heir.^[90] However, Caesar's will named his grandnephew Octavian as the primary heir, and Octavian arrived in Italy around the same time Cleopatra decided to depart for Egypt.^[90] A few months later Cleopatra decided to kill her brother and joint ruler Ptolemy XIV by poisoning, elevating her son Caesarion instead as her co-ruler.^[91]

Cleopatra in the Roman civil war

Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate in 43 BC, in which they were each elected for five-year terms to restore order in the Republic and bring Caesar's assassins to justice.^[92] Cleopatra received messages from both Gaius Cassius Longinus, one of Caesar's assassins, and Publius Cornelius Dolabella, proconsul of Syria and Caesarian loyalist, requesting military aid.^[92] She decided to write Cassius an excuse that her kingdom faced too many internal problems while sending the four legions left by Caesar in Egypt to Dolabella.^[92] However, these troops were captured by Cassius in Palestine, while they traveled en route to Syria.^[92] While Cleopatra's governor of Cyprus defected to Cassius and provided him with ships, Cleopatra took her own fleet to Greece to personally assist Octavian and Antony, but her ships were heavily damaged in a Mediterranean storm and she arrived too late to aid in the fighting.^[92] By the autumn of 42 BC Antony defeated the forces of Caesar's assassins at the Battle of Philippi in Greece, leading to the suicide of Cassius and Marcus Junius Brutus the Younger.^[92]

By the end of 42 BC, Octavian gained control over much of the western half of the Roman Republic and Antony the eastern half, with Lepidus largely marginalized.^[93] Antony moved his headquarters from Athens to Tarsos in Anatolia by the summer of 41 BC.^[93] He summoned Cleopatra to Tarsos in several letters, invitations she initially rebuffed until he sent his envoy Quintus Dellius to Alexandria, convincing her to come.^[94] The meeting would allow Cleopatra to clear up the misconception that she seemed to support Cassius during the civil war and would address pressing issues about territorial exchanges in the Levant, but Mark Antony undoubtedly desired to form a personal, romantic relationship with the queen.^[95] Cleopatra sailed up the Kydnos River to Tarsos in her Thalamegos, inviting Antony and his officers for two nights of lavish banquets on board her ship, while Antony attempted to return the favor on the third night of dining with his own far less luxurious banquet.^[96] Cleopatra managed to clear her name as a supposed supporter of Cassius, arguing she had really attempted to help Dolabella in Syria, while convincing Antony to have her rival sister Arsinoe IV dragged from her place of exile at the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus and executed.^[97] Her former governor of Cyprus who had rebelled against her and joined Cassius was also found at Tyre and handed over to Cleopatra.^[97]

Relationship with Mark Antony

Cleopatra invited Antony to come to Egypt before departing from Tarsos, which led Antony to visit Alexandria by November 41 BC.^[97] Antony was well-received by the populace of Alexandria, for his heroic actions in restoring Ptolemy XII to power and coming to Egypt without an occupational force like Caesar had done.^[98] In Egypt, Antony continued to enjoy the lavish royal lifestyle he had witnessed aboard Cleopatra's ship docked at Tarsos.^[99]

Of all the queens of antiquity, those who did at times rule independently were married for most of their careers.^[100] Cleopatra, on the other hand, reigned for most of her 22 years as a sole monarch, with nominal joint rulers and a possible marriage to Antony very late in her life.^[100] Having Caesarion as her sole heir produced both benefits and dangers, in that his sudden death could extinguish the dynasty, but rivalry with other potential heirs and siblings could also spell his downfall.^[100] Cleopatra carefully chose Antony as her partner for producing further heirs, as he was deemed to be the most powerful Roman figure following Caesar's demise.^[101] With his triumviral powers, Antony also had the broad authority to restore former Ptolemaic lands to Cleopatra that were currently in Roman hands.^[102][103] While it is clear that both Cilicia and Cyprus were controlled by Cleopatra by 19 November 38 BC with a mention of her governor Diogenes who administered both, the transfer probably occurred earlier in the winter of 41-40 BC, during her time spent with Antony.^[102]

By the spring of 40 BC Mark Antony was forced to end his vacation in Egypt with Cleopatra due to troubles in Syria, where his governor Lucius Decidius Saxa was killed and his army taken by Quintus Labienus, a former officer under Cassius who now served the Parthian Empire.^[104] Cleopatra provided Antony with 200 ships for his campaign and as payment for her newly-acquired territories.^[104] She would not see Antony again until 37 BC, but she maintained correspondence and evidence suggests she kept a spy in his camp.^[104] By the end of 40 BC Cleopatra gave birth to twins, a boy named Alexander Helios and a girl named Cleopatra Selene II, both of whom Antony acknowledged as his children.^[105] Helios (Greek: Ἥλιος), the sun, and Selene (Greek: Σελήνη), the moon, were symbolic of a new era and societal rejuvenation.^[106]

Mark Antony's focus on confronting the Parthians in the east were disrupted by the events of the Perusine War (41-40 BC), initiated by his ambitious wife Fulvia against Octavian in the hopes of making her husband the undisputed leader of Rome.^[106] Although it has been suggested that part of her motivations were to cleave Antony away from Cleopatra, this is unlikely, as the conflict emerged in Italy even before Cleopatra's meeting with Antony at Tarsos.^[107] Fulvia and Antony's brother Lucius Antonius were eventually besieged by Octavian at Perusia (modern Perugia, Italy) and then exiled from Italy, after which Fulvia died at Sikyon in Greece while attempting to reach Antony.^[108] Her sudden death led to a reconciliation of Octavian and Antony at Brundisium in Italy in September 40 BC.^[108] Although the agreement struck at Brundisium solidified Antony's control of the Roman Republic's territories east of the Ionian Sea, it also stipulated that he marry Octavian's sister Octavia the Younger, a potential rival for Cleopatra.^[109]

In December 40 BC Cleopatra received Herod I (the Great) in Alexandria as an unexpected guest and refugee who fled a turbulent situation in Judea.^[110] Herod had been installed as a tetrarch there by Mark Antony, but he was soon at odds with Antigonus II Mattathias of the long-established Hasmonean dynasty.^[110] The latter had imprisoned Herod's brother and fellow tetrarch Phasael, who was executed while Herod was in mid-flight towards Cleopatra's court.^[110] Cleopatra attempted to provide him with a military assignment, but Herod declined and traveled to Rome, where the triumvirs Octavian and Mark Antony named him king of Judea.^[111] This act put Herod on a collision course with Cleopatra, who would desire to reclaim former Ptolemaic territories of his new Herodian kingdom.^[111]

Relations between Mark Antony and Cleopatra perhaps soured when he not only married Octavia, but also bore her two children, Antonia the Elder in 39 BC and Antonia Minor in 36 BC, moving his headquarters to Athens.^[112] However, Cleopatra's position in Egypt was secure. Her rival Herod was occupied with civil war in Judea that required heavy Roman military assistance, but received none from Cleopatra.^[112] Since the triumviral authority of Mark Antony and Octavian had expired on 1 January 37 BC, Octavia arranged for a meeting at Tarentum where the triumvirate was officially extended to 33 BC.^[113] With two legions granted by Octavian and a thousand soldiers lent by Octavia, Mark Antony traveled to Antioch, where he made preparations for war against the Parthians.^[114]

Antony summoned Cleopatra to Antioch to discuss pressing issues such as Herod's kingdom and financial support for his Parthian campaign.^[114] Cleopatra brought her now three-year-old twins to Antioch, where Mark Antony saw them for the first time and where they probably first received their surnames Helios and Selene as part of Antony and Cleopatra's ambitious plans for the future.^[115] In order to stabilize the east, Antony not only enlarged Cleopatra's domain, but also established new ruling dynasties and client rulers who would be loyal to him yet would ultimately outlast him,^[103] including Herod I of Judea, Amyntas of Galatia, Polemon I of Pontus, and Archelaus of Cappadocia.^[116] In this arrangement Cleopatra gained significant former Ptolemaic territories in the Levant, including nearly all of Phoenicia (centered in what is now modern Lebanon) minus Tyre and Sidon, which remained in Roman hands.^[117][103] She also received Ptolemais Akko (modern Acre, Israel), a city that was established by Ptolemy II.^[117] Given her ancestral relations with the Seleucids, she was granted the region of Koile-Syria along the upper Orontes River.^[118] She was even given the region surrounding Jericho in Palestine, but she leased this territory back to Herod.^[119] At the expense of the Nabataean king Malichus I (a cousin of Herod), Cleopatra was also given a portion of the Nabataean Kingdom around the Gulf of Aqaba on the Red Sea, including Ailana (modern Aqaba, Jordan).^[120] To the west Cleopatra was handed Cyrene along the Libyan coast, as well as Itanos and Olous in Roman Crete, restoring much of the territory lost by the Ptolemies, but not including any territories in the Aegean Sea or southwest Asia Minor.^[121] Although Cleopatra's control over much of these new territories was nominal and still administered by Roman officials, it nevertheless enriched her kingdom and led her to declare the inauguration of a new era by double-dating her coinage in 36 BC.^[122]

Antony's enlargement of the Ptolemaic realm by relinquishing directly-controlled Roman territory was exploited by his rival Octavian, who tapped into the public sentiment in Rome against the empowerment of a foreign queen at the expense of their Republic.^[123] Octavian also fostered the narrative that Antony was neglecting his virtuous Roman wife Octavia, granting both her and Livia, Octavian's wife, extraordinary privileges of sacrosanctity.^[123] Cornelia Africana, daughter of Scipio Africanus, mother of the reformists Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, and love interest of Cleopatra's great-grandfather Ptolemy VIII, was the first living Roman woman to have a statue dedicated in her honor.^[122] She was followed by Octavian's sister Octavia and his wife Livia, whose statues were most likely erected in the Forum of Caesar to rival that of Cleopatra's statue erected there earlier by Julius Caesar.^[122]

In 36 BC, Cleopatra accompanied Antony to the Euphrates River, perhaps as far as Seleucia at the Zeugma, on the first leg of his journey towards invading the Parthian Empire.^[124] She then went on a tour of some of her newly-acquired territories, traveling past Damascus and entering the lands of Herod, who escorted her in lavish conditions back to the Egyptian border town of Pelousion.^[125] Her main motivation for returning back to Egypt was her advanced state of pregnancy and by the summer of 36 BC gave birth to Ptolemy Philadelphus, her second son with Antony.^[125] He was also named after the second monarch of the Ptolemaic dynasty in what Cleopatra almost certainly intended as a prophetic gesture that the Ptolemaic kingdom would be restored to its former glory.^[125]

Antony's Parthian campaign in 36 BC turned into a complete debacle and was stymied by a number of factors such as extreme weather, spread of disease, and the betrayal of Artavasdes II of Armenia, who defected to the Parthian side.^[126][103] After losing some 30,000 men, more so than Crassus at Carrhae (an indignity he had hoped to avenge), Antony finally arrived at Leukokome near Berytus (modern Beirut, Lebanon) in December, engaged in heavy drinking before Cleopatra arrived to provide funds and clothing for his battered troops.^[126] Octavia offered to lend him more troops for another expedition, but Antony desired to avoid the political pitfalls of returning to Rome and so he traveled with Cleopatra back to Alexandria to see his newborn son.^[126]

Donations of Alexandria

As Antony prepared for another Parthian expedition in 35 BC, this time aimed at their ally Armenia, Octavia traveled to Athens with 2,000 troops in alleged support of Antony, but most likely in a scheme devised by Octavian to embarrass him for his military losses.^{[127][note 4]} Antony received these troops but told Octavia not to stray east of Athens as he and Cleopatra traveled together to Antioch, only to suddenly and inexplicably abandon the military campaign and head back to Alexandria.^[127] When Octavia returned to Rome Octavian portrayed his sister as a victim wronged by Antony, although she refused to leave Antony's household and return to that of Octavian's in Rome.^[128][103] Octavian's confidence grew as he also eliminated his rivals in the west, including Sextus Pompeius and even Lepidus, the third member of the triumvirate, who was placed under house arrest after revolting against Octavian in Sicily.^[128][103]

Quintus Dellius was sent as Antony's envoy to Artavasdes II of Armenia in 34 BC to negotiate a potential marriage alliance between the Armenian king's daughter and Antony and Cleopatra's son Alexander Helios.^[131] When this was declined, Antony marched his army into Armenia, defeated their forces and captured the king and Armenian royal family.^[131] They were sent back to Alexandria as prisoners in golden chains befitting their royal status.^[131] Antony then held a military parade in Alexandria in mock of a Roman triumph, dressed as Dionysos as he rode into the city on a chariot and presenting the royal prisoners to Queen Cleopatra, who was seated on a golden throne above a silver dais.^[131] News of this event was heavily criticized in Rome as being distasteful, if not a perversion of time-honored Roman rites and rituals to be enjoyed instead by an Egyptian queen and her subjects.^[131]

In an event held at the gymnasium soon after the triumph, known as the Donations of Alexandria, Cleopatra dressed as Isis and declared that she was the queen of kings with her son Caesarion, king of kings, while Alexander Helios, dressed as a Median, was declared king of Armenia, Medes, and Parthia, and two-year-old Ptolemy Philadelphos, dressed as a Macedonian-Greek ruler, was declared king of Syria and Cilicia.^[132][133] Cleopatra Selene was also bestowed with Crete and Cyrene.^[134] Given the polemic, contradictory, and fragmentary nature of primary sources from the period, it is uncertain if Cleopatra and Antony were also formally wed at this ceremony or if they had any marriage at all.^[134] However, coins of Antony and Cleopatra depict them in the typical manner of a Hellenistic royal couple.^[134] Antony then sent a report to Rome requesting ratification of these territorial claims, which Octavian wanted to publicize for propaganda purposes, but the two consuls, both supporters of Antony, had it censored from public view.^[135]

In late 34 BC, following the Donations of Alexandria, Antony and Octavian engaged in a heated war of propaganda that would last for years.^[137] Antony claimed that his rival had illegally deposed Lepidus from their triumvirate and barred him from raising troops in Italy, while Octavian accused Antony of unlawfully detaining the king of Armenia, marrying Cleopatra despite still being married to his sister Octavia, and wrongfully claiming Caesarion as the heir of Caesar instead of Octavian.^[137] The litany of accusations and gossip associated with this propaganda war have shaped the popular perceptions about Cleopatra from Augustan-period literature all the way to various media in modern times.^[138] Aside from casual criticisms of her extravagant lifestyle and corruption of simple Antony with her opulence, she was also said by some Roman authors to have resorted to witchcraft as a lethal sorceress who not only toyed with the idea of poisoning many, Antony included, but also intended to conquer and punish Rome itself, a woman as dangerous as Homer's Helen of Troy in toppling the order of civilization.^[139] Antony was generally viewed as having lost his judgment, brainwashed by Cleopatra's magic spells.^[140] Antony's supporters rebutted with tales of Octavian's wild and promiscuous sex life, while graffiti now often appeared slandering either side as being sexually obscene.^[140] Cleopatra had a conveniently-timed Sibylline oracle claim that Rome would be punished but that peace and reconciliation would follow in a golden age led by the queen.^[141] In an account of Lucius Munatius Plancus preserved in Horace's Satires, Cleopatra was said to have made a bet that she could spend 2.5 million drachmas in a single evening, proving it by removing a pearl, one of the most expensive known, from one of her earrings and dissolving it in vinegar at her dinner party.^[142] The accusation that Antony had stolen the books of the Library of Pergamon to restock the Library of Alexandria, however, was an admitted fabrication by Gaius Calvisius Sabinus, who may have been the source of many other slanders of Antony in support of Octavian's side.^[143]

A papyrus document dated to February 33 BC contains with little doubt the signature handwriting of Cleopatra VII.^[136] It concerns certain tax exemptions in Egypt granted to Publius Canidius Crassus, former Roman consul and Antony's confidant who would command his land forces at Actium.^[144] A subscript in a different handwriting at the bottom of the papyrus reads "make it happen" (Greek: γινέσθωι, romanized: ginesthō), undoubtedly the autograph of the queen, as it was Ptolemaic practice to countersign documents in avoidance of forgery.^[144]

Battle of Actium

In a speech to the Roman Senate on the first day of his consulship on 1 January 33 BC, Octavian accusing Antony of attempting to subvert Roman freedoms and authority as a slave to his Oriental queen, who he said was given lands that rightfully belonged to the Romans.^[145] Before Antony and Octavian's joint imperium expired on 31 December 33 BC, Antony declared Caesarion as the true heir of Julius Caesar in an attempt to undermine Octavian.^[145] On 1 January 32 BC the Antonian loyalists Gaius Sosius and Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus were elected as consuls.^[144] On 1 February 32 BC Sosius gave a fiery speech condemning Octavian, now a private citizen without public office, introducing pieces of legislation against him.^[144][146] During the next senatorial session, Octavian entered the Senate house with armed guards and levied his own accusations against the consuls.^[144][147] Intimidated by this act, the next day the consuls and many senators still in support of Antony fled Rome and joined the side of Antony, who established his own counter Roman Senate.^[144][147] Although Antony held military office and his reputation was still largely intact, he was still fundamentally reliant on Cleopatra for military support.^[144] The couple traveled together to Ephesus in 32 BC, where Cleopatra provided him with 200 naval ships of the 800 total he was able to acquire.^[144]

Domitius Ahenobarbus, wary of the effect of Octavian's propaganda, attempted to persuade Antony to have Cleopatra entirely excluded from the military efforts launched against Octavian.^[148] Publius Canidius Crassus made the counterargument that Cleopatra was funding the war effort and, as a long-reigning monarch, was by no means inferior to the male allied kings Antony had summoned for the campaign.^[148] Cleopatra refused Antony's requests that she return to Egypt, judging that by blocking Octavian in Greece she could more easily defend Egypt from him.^[148] Cleopatra's insistence that she be involved in the battle for Greece led to defections of prominent Romans such as Domitius Ahenobarbus and Lucius Munatius Plancus.^[148][147]

During the spring of 32 BC Antony and Cleopatra traveled to Samos and then Athens, where Cleopatra was reportedly well-received.^[148] She persuaded Antony to send Octavia an official declaration of divorce.^[148][147] This encouraged Munatius Plancus to advise Octavian that he should seize Antony's will, invested with the Vestal Virgins.^[148][147] Although a violation of sacred customs and legal rights, Octavian forcefully acquired the document from the Temple of Vesta, a useful tool in the propaganda war against Antony and Cleopatra.^[148] In the selective public reading of the will, Octavian highlighted the claim that Caesarion was heir to Caesar, that the Donations of Alexandria were legal, that Antony should be buried alongside Cleopatra in Egypt instead of Rome, and that Alexandria would be made the new capital of the Roman Republic.^[149][147] In a show of loyalty to Rome, Octavian decided to begin construction of his own mausoleum at the Campus Martius.^[147] Octavian's legal standing was also improved by being elected consul in 31 BC, reentering public office.^[147] With Antony's will made public, Octavian had his casus belli and Rome declared war on Cleopatra.^[149] The legal argument for war was based less on Cleopatra's territorial acquisitions, with former Roman territories ruled by her children with Antony, and more on the fact that she was providing military support to a private citizen now that Antony's triumviral authority had expired.^[150]

Antony and Cleopatra had greater amounts of troops (i.e. 100,000 men) and ships (i.e. 800 vessels) than Octavian, who reportedly had 200 ships and 80,000 men.^[151] However, the crews of Antony and Cleopatra's navy were not all well-trained, some of them perhaps from merchant vessels, whereas Octavian had a fully professional force.^[152] Antony wanted to cross the Adriatic Sea and blockade Octavian at either Tarentum or Brundisium,^[153] but Cleopatra, concerned primarily with defending Egypt, overrode the decision to attack Italy directly.^[151] Antony and Cleopatra set up their winter headquarters at Patrai in Greece and by the spring of 31 BC they moved to Actium along the southern Ambracian Gulf.^[151][153] With this position Cleopatra had the defense of Egypt in mind, as any southward movement by Octavian's fleet along the coast of Greece could be detected.^[151]

Cleopatra and Antony had the support of various allied kings, but conflict between Cleopatra and Herod had previously erupted and an earthquake in Judea provided an excuse for him and his forces not to be present at Actium in support of the couple.^[154] They also lost the support of Malichus I of Nabataea, which would prove to have strategic consequences.^[155] Antony and Cleopatra lost several skirmishes against Octavian around Actium during the summer of 31 BC, while defections to Octavian's camp continued, including Antony's long-time companion Quintus Dellius.^[155] The allied kings also began to defect to Octavian's side, starting with Amyntas of Galatia and Deiotaros of Paphlagonia.^[155] While some in Antony's camp suggested abandoning the naval conflict to retreat inland and face Octavian in the Greek interior, Cleopatra urged for a naval confrontation instead to keep Octavian's fleet away from Egypt.^[156]

On 2 September 31 BC the naval forces of Octavian, led by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, met those of Antony and Cleopatra for a decisive engagement, the Battle of Actium.^[156][153] Cleopatra, aboard her flagship the Antonias, commanded 60 ships at the mouth of the Ambracian Gulf, at the rear of the fleet, in what was likely a move by Antony's officers to marginalize her during the battle.^[156] Antony had ordered that their ships should have sails on board for a better chance to pursue or flee from the enemy, which Cleopatra, ever-concerned about defending Egypt, used to swiftly move through the area of major combat in a strategic withdrawal to the Peloponnese.^[157][158] Antony followed her and boarded her ship, identified by its distinctive purple sails, as the two escaped the battle and headed for Tainaron.^[157] Antony reportedly avoided Cleopatra during this three-day voyage, until her ladies in waiting at Tainaron urged him to speak with her.^[159] The Battle of Actium raged on without Cleopatra and Antony, until the morning of 3 September, followed by massive defections of both officers and troops to Octavian's side, even the allied kings.^[159][158]

Downfall and death

While Octavian occupied Athens, Antony and Cleopatra landed at Paraitonion in Egypt.^[159] The couple then went their separate ways, Antony to Cyrene to raise more troops and Cleopatra sailing into the harbor at Alexandria in a misleading attempt to portray the activities in Greece as a victory.^[159] Conflicting reports make it unclear if Cleopatra had financial difficulties at this juncture or not, as some claims, such as robbing temples of their wealth to pay for her military expenditures, were likely Augustan propaganda.^[161] It is also uncertain if she actually executed Artavasdes II of Armenia and sent his head to Artavasdes I, king of Media Atropatene, his rival, in an attempt to strike an alliance with him.^[162]

Lucius Pinarius, Mark Antony's appointed governor of Cyrene, received word that Octavian had won the Battle of Actium before Antony's messengers could arrive at his court.^[162] Pinarius had these messengers executed and defected to Octavian's side, surrendering to him the four legions under his command that Antony desired to obtain.^[162] Antony nearly committed suicide after news of this but was stopped by his staff officers.^[162] In Alexandria he built a reclusive cottage on the island of Pharos that he nicknamed the Timoneion, after the philosopher Timon of Athens, who was famous for his cynicism and misanthropy.^[162] Herod the Great, who had personally advised Antony after the Battle of Actium that he should betray Cleopatra, traveled to Rhodes to meet Octavian and resign his kingship out of loyalty to Antony.^[163] Octavian was impressed by his speech and sense of loyalty, so he allowed him to maintain his position in Judea, further isolating Antony and Cleopatra.^[163]

Cleopatra perhaps started to view Antony as a liability by the late summer of 31 BC, when she prepared to leave Egypt to her son Caesarion.^[164] As an object of Roman hostility, Cleopatra would relinquish her throne and remove herself from the equation by dragging her fleet from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea and then setting sail to a foreign port, perhaps in India where she could spend time recuperating.^[164] However, these plans were ultimately abandoned when Malichus I of Nabataea, as advised by Octavian's governor of Syria Quintus Didius, managed to burn Cleopatra's fleet, in revenge for his losses in a war with Herod that Cleopatra had largely initiated.^[164] Cleopatra had no other option but to stay in Egypt and negotiate with Octavian.^[164] Although most likely pro-Octavian propaganda, it was reported that at this time Cleopatra started testing the strengths of various poisons on prisoners and even her own servants.^[165]

Cleopatra had Caesarion enter into the ranks of the ephebi, which, along with reliefs on a stele from Koptos dated 21 September 31 BC, demonstrated that Cleopatra was now grooming her son to become the sole ruler of Egypt.^[166] In a show of solidarity Antony also had Marcus Antonius Antyllus, his son with Fulvia, enter the ephebi at the same time.^[164] Separate messages and envoys from Antony and Cleopatra were then sent to Octavian, still stationed at Rhodes, although Octavian seems to have only replied to Cleopatra.^[165] Cleopatra requested that her children should inherit Egypt and that Antony should be allowed to live in exile in Egypt, offering Octavian money in the future and immediately sending him gifts of a golden scepter, crown, and throne.^[165] Octavian sent his diplomat Thyrsos to Cleopatra after she threatened to burn herself and vast amounts of her treasure within a tomb already under construction.^[167] Thyrsos advised her to kill Antony so that her life would be spared, but when Antony suspected foul intent he had this diplomat flogged and sent back to Octavian without a deal.^[168] From Octavian's point of view, Lepidus could be trusted under house arrest, but Antony had to be eliminated and Caesarion, the rival heir to Julius Caesar, couldn't be trusted either.^[168]

After lengthy negotiations that ultimately produced no results, Octavian set out to invade Egypt in the spring of 30 BC, stopping at Ptolemais in Phoenicia where his new ally Herod entertained him and provided his army with fresh supplies.^[169] Octavian moved south and swiftly took Pelousion, while Cornelius Gallus, marching eastward from Cyrene, defeated Antony's forces near Paraitonion.^[170] Octavian advanced quickly onto Alexandria, but Antony returned and won a small victory over his tired troops outside the city's hippodrome.^[170] However, on 1 August 30 BC Antony's naval fleet surrendered to Octavian, followed by his cavalry.^[170][158] Cleopatra hid herself in her tomb with her close attendants, sending a message to Antony that she had committed suicide.^[170] In despair, Antony responded to this by stabbing himself in the stomach and taking his own life at age 53.^[170][158] According to Plutarch he was allegedly still dying, however, when brought to Cleopatra at her tomb, telling her he had died honorably in a contest against a fellow Roman, and that she could trust Octavian's companion over anyone else in his entourage.^[170] It was Proculeius, however, who infiltrated her tomb using a ladder and detained the queen, denying her the ability to burn herself with her treasures.^[171] Cleopatra was then allowed to embalm and bury Antony within her tomb before she was escorted to the palace.^[171]

Octavian entered Alexandria and gave a speech of reconciliation at the gymnasium before settling in the palace and seizing Cleopatra's three youngest children.^[171] When she met with Octavian she looked disheveled but still retained her poise and classic charm, telling him bluntly that "I will not be led in a triumph" (Greek: οὑ θριαμβεύσομαι, romanized: ou thriamvéfsoume) according to Livy, a rare recording of her exact words.^[172][173] Octavian promised that he would keep her alive but offered no explanation about his future plans for her kingdom.^[174] When a spy informed her that Octavian planned to move her and her children to Rome in three days she prepared for suicide, as she had no intentions of being paraded in a Roman triumph like her sister Arsinoe IV.^[174][158] It is unclear if Cleopatra's suicide, in August 30 BC at age 39, took place within the palace or her tomb.^{[175][note 1]} It is said she was accompanied by her servants Eiras and Charmion, who also took their own lives.^[174] Octavian was said to be angered by this outcome but had her buried in royal fashion next to Antony in her tomb.^[174] Cleopatra's physician Olympos did not give an account of the cause of her death, although the popular belief is that she allowed an asp, or Egyptian cobra, to bite and poison her.^[176][177] Plutarch relates this tale, but then suggests an implement (knestis) was used to introduce the toxin by scratching, while Cassius Dio says that she injected the poison with a needle (belone) and Strabo argued for an ointment of some kind.^[178][177] No venomous snake was found with her body, but she did have tiny puncture wounds on her arm that could have been caused by a needle.^[176]

Cleopatra, though long desiring to preserve her kingdom, decided in her last moments to send Caesarion away to Upper Egypt and perhaps with plans to flee to Ethiopia or India.^[179] Caesarion, now Ptolemy XV, would reign for a mere eighteen days until executed on the orders of Octavian on 29 August 30 BC, as he was returning to Alexandria under the false pretense that Octavian would allow him to be king.^[180] Octavian hesitated to have him killed at first, but he was convinced by the advice of the philosopher and friend Arius Didymus that there was room for only one Caesar in the world.^[181] With the fall of the Ptolemaic Kingdom, Egypt was made into a Roman province,^{[182][158][183]} marking the end of the Hellenistic period.^[184] In January 27 BC Octavian was renamed Augustus ('the revered') and amassed constitutional powers that established him as the first Roman emperor, inaugurating the Principate era of the Roman Empire.^[185]

Children and successors

After her suicide, Cleopatra's three surviving children Cleopatra Selene II, Alexander Helios, and Ptolemy Philadelphos were sent to Rome with Octavian's sister Octavia as their guardian.^[186] Cleopatra Selene II and Alexander Helios were present in the Roman triumph of Octavian in 29 BC.^[186] The fates of Alexander Helios and Ptolemy Philadelphus are unknown after this point.^[186] Octavia arranged the betrothal of their sister Cleopatra Selene II to Juba II, son of Juba I whose North African kingdom of Numidia had been turned into a Roman province in 46 BC by Julius Caesar due to Juba I's support of Pompey.^[187] The emperor Augustus installed Juba II and Cleopatra Selene II, after their royal wedding in 25 BC, as the new rulers of Mauretania, where they transformed the old Carthaginian city of Iol into their new capital, renamed Caesarea Mauretaniae (modern Cherchell, Algeria).^[187] Cleopatra Selene II imported many important scholars, artists, and advisers from her mother's former royal court in Alexandria to serve her in Caesarea, now permeated in Hellenistic-Greek culture.^[188] She also named her son Ptolemy of Mauretania, in honor of their Ptolemaic dynastic heritage.^[189]

Cleopatra Selene II died around 5 BC and when Juba II died in 23/24 AD he was succeeded by his son Ptolemy.^[189][190] However, Ptolemy was eventually executed by the Roman emperor Caligula in 40 AD, perhaps under the pretense that Ptolemy had unlawfully minted his own royal coinage and utilized regalia reserved for the Roman emperor.^[191][190] Ptolemy of Mauretania was the last known monarch of the Ptolemaic dynasty, although Queen Zenobia of the short-lived Palmyrene Empire during the Crisis of the Third Century would claim descent from Cleopatra.^[192] A cult dedicated to Cleopatra still existed as late as 373 AD when Petesenufe, an Egyptian scribe of the book of Isis, explained that he "overlaid the figure of Cleopatra with gold."^[193]

Roman literature and historiography

Although almost fifty ancient works of Roman historiography mention Cleopatra, these often include only terse accounts of the Battle of Actium, her suicide, and Augustan propaganda about her personal deficiencies.^[194] Although not a biography of Cleopatra, the Life of Antonius written by Plutarch in the 1st century AD provides the most thorough surviving account of Cleopatra's life.^[195] Plutarch lived a century after Cleopatra but relied on reliable primary sources such as Philotas of Amphissa, who had access to the Ptolemaic royal palace, Cleopatra's personal physician named Olympos, and Quintus Dellius, a close confidant of Antony and Cleopatra.^[196] Plutarch's work included both the Augustan view of Cleopatra that became historical canon in his day as well as sources outside of this tradition, such as eyewitness reports.^[195] The Jewish Roman historian Josephus, writing in the 1st century AD, provides valuable information on the life of Cleopatra via her diplomatic relationship with Herod the Great.^[197][198] However, this work relies largely on Herod's memoirs and the biased account of Nicolaus of Damascus, the tutor of Cleopatra's children in Alexandria before he moved to Judea to serve as an adviser and chronicler at Herod's court.^[197][198] The Roman History published by the official and historian Cassius Dio in the early 3rd century AD, while failing to fully comprehend the complexities of the late Hellenistic world, nevertheless provides a continuous history of the era of Cleopatra's reign.^[197]

Cleopatra is barely mentioned in the De Bello Alexandrino, the memoirs of an unknown staff officer who served under Julius Caesar.^[199] Cicero's writings provide an unflattering portrait of Cleopatra, who knew him personally.^[199] The Augustan-period authors Vergil, Horace, Propertius, and Ovid perpetuated the negative views of Cleopatra approved by the ruling Roman regime,^[199] although Vergil established the idea of Cleopatra as a figure of romance and epic melodrama.^[200] Horace also viewed Cleopatra's suicide as a positive choice, an idea that found acceptance by the Late Middle Ages with Geoffrey Chaucer.^[201][201] The historians Strabo, Velleius, Valerius Maximus, Pliny the Elder, and Appian, while not offering accounts as full as Plutarch, Josephus, or Cassius Dio, provided some details of her life that had not survived in other historical records.^[199] Inscriptions on contemporary Ptolemaic coinage and some Egyptian papyrus documents demonstrate Cleopatra's point of view, but this material is very limited in comparison to Roman literary works.^[199] The now fragmentary Libyka commissioned by Cleopatra's son-in-law Juba II provides a rare glimpse at a possible corpus of historiographic material that supported Cleopatra's point of view.^[199]

Cleopatra's gender has perhaps led to her depiction as a minor if not insignificant figure in ancient, medieval, and even modern historiography about ancient Egypt and the Greco-Roman world.^[202] For instance, the historian Ronald Syme (1903-1989) asserted that she was of little importance to Julius Caesar and that the propaganda of Octavian magnified her importance to an excessive degree.^[202] Although the common view of Cleopatra was one of a prolific seductress, she had only two known sexual partners, Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, the two most prominent Romans of the time period who were most likely to ensure the survival of her dynasty.^[203]

Cultural depictions

Depictions in ancient art

Statues

Left image: an Egyptian statue of either Arsinoe II or Cleopatra VII as an Egyptian goddess in black basalt, second half of the 1st century BC;^[204] Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg
Right image: the Esquiline Venus, a Roman or Hellenistic-Egyptian statue of Venus (Aphrodite), which may be a depiction of Cleopatra VII,^[205] Capitoline Museums, Rome

Cleopatra was depicted in various ancient works of art, in the Egyptian as well as Hellenistic-Greek and Roman styles.^[2] Surviving works include statues, busts, reliefs, and minted coins,^[2] as well as an ancient carved cameos,^[206] such as one depicting Cleopatra and Mark Antony in Hellenistic style, now in the Altes Museum, Berlin.^[1] Contemporary images of Cleopatra were produced both in and outside of Ptolemaic Egypt. For instance, a large gilded bronze statue of Cleopatra once existed inside the Temple of Venus Genetrix in Rome, the first time that a living person had their statue placed next to that of a deity in a Roman temple.^[3][88] It was erected there by Julius Caesar and remained in the temple at least until the 3rd century AD, its preservation perhaps owing to Caesar's patronage, although Augustus did not remove or destroy artworks in Alexandria depicting Cleopatra.^[207][208] In regards to surviving Roman statuary, a life-sized Roman-style statue of Cleopatra was found near the Tomba di Nerone, Rome along the Via Cassia and is now housed in the Museo Pio-Clementino, Vatican Museums.^[1] The historian Plutarch, in his Life of Antony, claimed that the public statues of Mark Antony were torn down by Augustus, but those of Cleopatra were preserved following her death thanks to her friend Archibius paying the emperor 2,000 talents to dissuade him from destroying hers.^[209][193]

Since the 1950s scholars have debated whether or not the Esquiline Venus—discovered in 1874 on the Esquiline Hill in Rome and housed in the Palazzo dei Conservatori of the Capitoline Museums—is a depiction of Cleopatra, based on the statue's hairstyle and facial features, apparent royal diadem worn over the head, and the uraeus Egyptian cobra wrapped around the base.^[205][210] Detractors of this theory argue that the facial features on the Berlin bust and coinage of Cleopatra differ and assert that it was unlikely she would be depicted as the naked goddess Venus (i.e. the Greek Aphrodite).^[205][210] However, she was depicted in an Egyptian statue as the goddess Isis.^[211] The Esquiline Venus is generally thought to be a mid-1st-century AD Roman copy of a 1st-century BC Greek original from the school of Pasiteles.^[210]

Coinage portraits

Coins of Cleopatra dated to the period of her marriage to Mark Antony, which also bear his image, portray the queen as having a very similar aquiline nose and prominent chin as that of her husband.^[3] These similar facial features followed an artistic convention that represented the mutually-observed harmony of a royal couple.^[3][2] Her strong, almost masculine facial features in these particular coins are strikingly different from the smoother, softer, and perhaps idealized sculpted images of her in either the Egyptian or Hellenistic styles.^[2][212] Her facial features on minted currency are similar to that of her father Ptolemy XII Auletes,^[26] and perhaps also to those of her Ptolemaic ancestor Queen Arsinoe II (316 - 260 BC).^[2] It is likely, due to political expediency, that Antony's visage was made to conform not only to hers but also to those of her Macedonian Greek ancestors who founded the Ptolemaic dynasty, to familiarize himself to her subjects as a legitimate member of the royal house.^[2] The inscriptions on the coins are written in Greek, but also in the nominative case of Roman coins rather than the genitive case of Greek coins, in addition to having the letters placed in a circular fashion along the edges of the coin instead of across it horizontally or vertically as was customary for Greek ones.^[2] These facets of their coinage represent the synthesis of Roman and Hellenistic culture, and perhaps also a statement to their subjects, however ambiguous to modern scholars, about the superiority of either Antony or Cleopatra over the other.^[2] Diana E. E. Kleiner argues that Cleopatra, in one of her coins minted with the dual image of her husband Antony, made herself more masculine-looking than other portraits and more like an acceptable Roman client queen than a Hellenistic ruler.^[212]

A silver tetradrachm minted sometime after her marriage with Antony in 37 BC depicts her wearing a royal diadem and a 'melon' hairstyle.^[3] The combination of this hairstyle with a diadem are also featured in two surviving sculpted marble busts.^[1][213] This hairstyle, with hair braided back into a bun, is the same as that worn by her Ptolemaic ancestors Arsinoe II and Berenice II (266 - 221 BC) in their own coinage.^[3] After her visit to Rome in 46-44 BC it became fashionable for Roman women to adopt this elaborate hairstyle, but it was abandoned for a more modest, austere look during the conservative rule of Augustus.^[3][213]

Greco-Roman busts

An ancient Roman bust, c. 50-30 BC, depicting a woman from Ptolemaic Egypt, either Queen Cleopatra VII or a member of her entourage during her 46-44 BC visit to Rome with her lover Julius Caesar; British Museum, London^[213]

Of the surviving Greco-Roman-style busts of Cleopatra, the sculpture known as the 'Berlin Cleopatra', located in the Antikensammlung Berlin collection of the Altes Museum, possesses her full nose, whereas the bust known as the 'Vatican Cleopatra', located in the Vatican Museums, is damaged with a missing nose.^{[1][3][214][215]} Both the Berlin Cleopatra and Vatican Cleopatra have royal diadems, similar facial features, and perhaps once resembled the face of her bronze statue housed in the Temple of Venus Genetrix.^{[3][214][215][216]} Both busts are dated to the mid-1st century BC and were found in Roman villas along the Via Appia in Italy, the Vatican Cleopatra having been unearthed in the Villa of the Quintilii.^[1][3][214] Francisco Pina Polo writes that Cleopatra's coinage present her image with certainty and asserts that the sculpted portrait of the Berlin bust is confirmed as having a similar profile with her hair pulled back into a bun, a diadem, and a hooked nose.^[4] A third sculpted portrait of Cleopatra accepted by scholars as being authentic survives at the Archaeological Museum of Cherchel, Algeria.^{[208][213][217]} This portrait features the royal diadem and similar facial features as the Berlin and Vatican busts, but has a more unique hairstyle and may even depict Cleopatra Selene II, daughter of Cleopatra VII who married king Juba II of Mauretania.^[217]

Other possible but disputed busts of Cleopatra include one in the British Museum, London, made of limestone, which perhaps only depicts a woman in her entourage during her trip to Rome.^[1][213] The woman in this bust has facial features similar to other portraits (including the pronounced aquiline nose), but lacks a royal diadem and sports a different hairstyle.^[1][213] However, the British Museum bust could potentially represent Cleopatra at a different stage in her life and may also betray an effort by Cleopatra to discard the use of royal insignia (i.e. the diadem) to make herself more appealing to the citizens of Republican Rome.^[213] Duane W. Roller speculates that the British Museum bust, along with those in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo, the Capitoline Museums, Rome, and in the private collection of Maurice Nahmen (1868-1948), while having similar facial features and hairstyles as the Berlin bust but lacking a royal diadem, most likely represent members of the royal court or even Roman women imitating Cleopatra's popular hairstyle.^[218]

Native Egyptian art

The Bust of Cleopatra in the Royal Ontario Museum represents a bust of Cleopatra in the Egyptian style.^[219] Dated to the mid-1st-century BC, it is perhaps the earliest depiction of Cleopatra as both a goddess and ruling pharaoh of Egypt.^[219] This sculpture also has pronounced eyes that share similarities with Roman copies of Ptolemaic sculpted works of art.^[220] The Dendera Temple complex near Dendera, Egypt, contains Egyptian-style carved relief images along the exterior walls of the Temple of Hathor depicting Cleopatra and her young son Caesarion as a fully-grown adult and ruling pharaoh making offerings to the gods.^[221][222] Augustus had his name inscribed there following the death of Cleopatra.^[221] A large Ptolemaic black basalt statue measuring 41 in (1.04 m) in height, located now at the Hermitage Museum of Saint Petersburg, Russia, is thought to represent Arsinoe II, wife of Ptolemy II, but recent analysis has indicated that it could depict her descendant Cleopatra VII due to the three uraei adorning her headdress, an increase from the two used by Arsinoe II to symbolize her rule over Lower and Upper Egypt.^{[209][206][204]} The woman in the basalt statue also holds a divided, double cornucopia (dikeras), which can be seen on coins of both Arsinoe II and Cleopatra VII.^[209][204] In his Kleopatra und die Caesaren (2006), Bernard Andreae contends that this basalt statue, like other idealized Egyptian portraits of the queen, does not contain realistic facial features and hence adds little to the knowledge of her appearance.^[223]

Paintings

A Roman Second-style painting in the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus at Pompeii, Italy, depicting Cleopatra VII as Venus Genetrix and her son Caesarion as a cupid, mid-1st century BC^[210][224]

A steel engraving published by John Sartain in 1885 depicting the now lost painted death portrait of Cleopatra VII (left), an encaustic painting discovered in the ancient Roman ruins of the Egyptian Temple of Serapis at Hadrian's Villa (in Tivoli, Lazio) in 1818; she is seen here wearing the knot of Isis (corresponding with Plutarch's description of her wearing the robes of Isis),^[225] as well as the radiant crown of the Ptolemaic rulers such as Ptolemy V (pictured to the right in a golden octodrachm minted in 204-203 BC).^[226]

In the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus at Pompeii, Italy a mid-1st century BC Second-Style wall painting of the goddess Venus holding a cupid near massive temple doors is most likely a depiction of Cleopatra VII as Venus Genetrix with her son Caesarion.^[210][224] The commission of the painting most likely coincides with the erection of the Temple of Venus Genetrix in the Forum of Caesar in September 46 BC, where Julius Caesar had a gilded statue erected depicting Cleopatra.^[210][224] It is also likely that this particular statue formed the basis of her depictions in both sculpted art as well as this painting at Pompeii.^[210][227] The woman in the painting wears a royal diadem over her head and is strikingly similar in appearance to the Vatican Cleopatra bust, which bears possible marks on the marble of its left cheek where a cupid's arm may have been torn off.^{[210][228][note 5]} The room with the painting was walled off by its owner, perhaps in reaction to the murder of Caesarion in 30 BC by order of Augustus, when public depictions of Cleopatra's son would have been unfavorable with the new Roman regime.^[210][229] Behind her golden diadem crowned with a red jewel is a translucent veil with crinkles that suggest the 'melon' hairstyle favored by the queen.^[228] Her skin is ivory white, her face round, her nose long and aquiline, and her large round eyes are deep-set, features that were common in both Roman and Ptolemaic-Egyptian depictions of deities.^[228] Roller affirms that "there seems little doubt that this is a depiction of Cleopatra and Caesarion before the doors of the Temple of Venus in the Forum Julium and, as such, it becomes the only extant contemporary painting of the queen."^[210]

Another painting from Pompeii, dated to the early 1st century AD and located in the House of Giuseppe II, contains a possible depiction of Cleopatra VII with her son Caesarion, both wearing royal diadems while she reclines and consumes poison in an act of suicide.^[160] The painting was originally thought to depict the Carthaginian noblewoman Sophonisba, who towards the end of the Second Punic War (218-201 BC) drank poison and committed suicide at the behest of her lover Masinissa, King of Numidia.^[160] Among the arguments in favor of it being a depiction of Cleopatra is the strong connection of her house with that of the Numidian royal family, Masinissa and Ptolemy VIII having been associates and Cleopatra's own daughter marrying the Numidian prince Juba II.^[160] Two centuries after her death Sophonisba was also a more obscure figure when this painting was made, while Cleopatra's suicide was far more famous.^[160] An asp is absent from the painting, but many Romans held the view that she received poison in another manner than a venomous snake bite.^[230] At the rear wall depicted in the painting is also a set of double doors positioned very high above the scene, suggesting the described layout of Cleopatra's tomb in Alexandria.^[160] A male servant holds the mouth of an artificial Egyptian crocodile (possibly an elaborate tray handle), while another man standing by is dressed as a Roman.^[160]

In 1818 a now lost encaustic painting was discovered in the Temple of Serapis at Hadrian's Villa near Tivoli, Lazio, Italy that depicted Cleopatra committing suicide with an asp biting her bare chest.^[231] A chemical analysis performed in 1822 confirmed that the medium for the painting was composed of one-third wax and two-thirds resin.^[231] The thickness of the painting over Cleopatra's bare flesh and her drapery were reportedly similar to the paintings of the Fayum mummy portraits.^[232] A steel engraving published by John Sartain in 1885 depicting the painting as described in the archaeological report shows Cleopatra wearing authentic clothing and jewelry of Egypt in the late Hellenistic period,^[233] as well as the radiant crown of the Ptolemaic rulers, as seen in their portraits on various coins minted during their respective reigns.^[226] After Cleopatra committed suicide, Octavian commissioned a painting to be made in her likeness and paraded it in her stead during his triumphal procession in Rome.^[232][179] The death portrait painting of Cleopatra was ostensibly taken from Rome along with the bulk of artworks and treasures used by Emperor Hadrian to decorate his private villa, including the temple where the painting was found.^[231]

In a 1949 publication, Frances Pratt and Becca Fizel rejected the idea proposed by some scholars in the 19th and early 20th centuries that the painting was perhaps done by an artist of the Italian Renaissance.^[231] Pratt and Fizel highlighted the Classical-style of the painting as preserved in textual descriptions and the steel engraving.^[231] They argued that it was unlikely for a Renaissance-period painter to have painted works with encaustic materials, conducted thorough research into Hellenistic-period Egyptian clothing and jewelry as depicted in the painting, and then precariously placed it in the ruins of the Egyptian temple at Hadrian's Villa.^[233] The painting's discovery at the site of these Roman ruins supports the theory that it was an ancient Roman work of art.^[234]

Portland Vase

The Portland Vase, a Roman cameo glass vase dated to the Augustan period and located in the British Museum, includes a possible depiction of Cleopatra with Mark Antony.^[235][236] In this interpretation, Cleopatra can be seen grasping Antony and drawing him towards her while a serpent (i.e. the asp) rises between her legs, Eros floats above, and Anton, the alleged ancestor of Antonian family, looks on in despair as his descendant Antony is led to his doom.^[235] The other side of the vase perhaps contains a scene of Octavia Minor, abandoned by her husband Antony but watched over by her brother, the emperor Augustus.^[235] The vase would thus have been created no earlier than 35 BC, when Antony sent his wife Octavia back to Italy and stayed with Cleopatra in Alexandria.^[235]

• 
  Possible depiction of Mark Antony being lured by Cleopatra VII, straddling a serpent, while Anton looks on and Eros flies above^[235]
• 
  Possible depiction of Anton, Mark Antony's alleged ancestor^[235]
• 
  Possible depiction of Octavia Minor, being abandoned by her husband Mark Antony and watched by her brother Octavian (most likely now emperor Augustus)^[235]
• 
  Possible depiction of Octavian, perhaps after his renaming as emperor Augustus in 27 BC^[235]

Medieval and Early Modern reception

In modern times Cleopatra has become an icon of popular culture, a reputation shaped by theatrical dramas dating back to the Renaissance as well as visual arts, such as paintings and films.^[237] This material largely surpasses the scope and size of existent historiographic literature about her from Classical Antiquity and has made a greater impact on the general public's view of Cleopatra than the latter.^[238] The 14th-century English poet Chaucer, in The Legend of Good Women, contextualized Cleopatra for the Christian world of the Middle Ages.^[239] His depiction of Cleopatra and Antony, her shining knight engaged in courtly love, has been interpreted in modern times as being either playful or misogynyistic satire.^[239] However, Chaucer highlighted Cleopatra's relationships with only two men as hardly the life of a seductress and wrote his works partly in reaction to the negative depiction of Cleopatra in De Mulieribus Claris and De Casibus Virorum Illustrium by the 14th-century Italian poet Giovanni Boccaccio.^[240] The Renaissance humanist Bernardino Cacciante, in his 1504 Libretto apologetico delle donne, was the first Italian to defend the reputation of Cleopatra and criticize the perceived moralizing and misogyny in Boccaccio's works.^[241]

In the visual arts, the sculpted depiction of Cleopatra as a free-standing nude figure committing suicide began with the 16th-century sculptors Bartolommeo Bandinelli and Alessandro Vittoria.^[242] Early prints depicting Cleopatra include those by the Renaissance artists Raphael and Michelangelo, as well as 15th-century Quattrocento woodcuts in illustrated publications of Boccaccio's works.^[243] Cleopatra also appeared in miniatures for illuminated manuscripts, such as a depiction of her and Mark Antony lying in a Gothic-style tomb by the Boucicaut Master in 1409.^[201] In the performing arts, the death of Elizabeth I of England in 1603 and 1606 German publication of alleged letters of Cleopatra inspired Samuel Daniel to alter and republish his 1594 play Cleopatra in 1607.^[244] This was followed by the playwright William Shakespeare, whose Antony and Cleopatra was first performed in 1608 and provided a salacious view of Cleopatra in stark contrast to England's own Virgin Queen.^[245] Cleopatra was also featured in operas, such as George Frideric Handel's 1724 Giulio Cesare in Egitto, which portrayed the love affair of Caesar and Cleopatra and outlined the lifelong career of the queen in vivid detail.^[246]

Modern depictions and brand imaging

In Victorian Britain, Cleopatra was highly associated with many aspects of ancient Egyptian culture and her image was used to market various household products, including oil lamps, lithographs, postcards and cigarettes.^[247] Fictional novels such as H. Rider Haggard's Cleopatra (1889) and Théophile Gautier's One of Cleopatra's Nights (1894) depicted the queen as a sensual and mystic Easterner, while the Egyptologist Georg Ebers' Cleopatra (1894) was more grounded in historical accuracy.^[247] The French dramatist Victorien Sardou and Irish playwright George Bernard Shaw produced plays about Cleopatra, while burlesque shows such as F. C. Burnand's Antony and Cleopatra offered satirical depictions of the queen connecting her and the environment she lived in with the modern age.^[248] Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra was considered canonical by the Victorian era.^[249] Its popularity led to the perception that the 1885 painting by Lawrence Alma-Tadema depicted the meeting of Antony and Cleopatra on her pleasure barge in Tarsus, although Alma-Tadema revealed in a private letter that it depicts a subsequent meeting of theirs in Alexandria.^[250] In his (unfinished) 1825 short story Egyptian Nights, Alexander Pushkin popularized the largely-ignored claims of 4th-century Roman historian Sextus Aurelius Victor that Cleopatra prostituted herself to men who paid for sex with their lives.^[251]

Georges Méliès' Robbing Cleopatra's Tomb (French: Cléopâtre), an 1899 French silent horror film, was the first film to depict the character of Cleopatra.^[252] Hollywood films of the 20th century were influenced by earlier Victorian media, which helped to shape the character of Cleopatra played by Theda Bara in Cleopatra (1917), Claudette Colbert in Cleopatra (1934), and Elizabeth Taylor in Cleopatra (1963).^[253] In addition to her portrayal as a 'vampire' queen, Bara's Cleopatra also incorporated elements of 19th-century Orientalism, such as despotism, mixed with dangerous, overt female sexuality.^[254] Colbert's character of Cleopatra served as a glamour model for selling Egytpian-themed products in department stores in the 1930s, which can be linked to director Cecil B. DeMille's filming techniques and emphasis on consumer commodities targeting female moviegoers.^[255] In preparation for the film starring Taylor as Cleopatra, women's magazines advertised how to use makeup, clothes, jewelry, and hairstyles to achieve the 'Egyptian' look similar to the queens Cleopatra and Nefertiti.^[256]

Written works

Whereas myths about Cleopatra persist in popular media, important aspects of her career go largely unnoticed, such as her command of naval forces, administrative acts, and publications on Ancient Greek medicine.^[194] Only fragments exist of the medical and cosmetic writings attributed to Cleopatra, such as those preserved by Galen, including remedies for hair disease, baldness, and dandruff, along with a list of weights and measures for pharmacological purposes.^[257] Aëtius of Amida attributed a recipe for perfumed soap to Cleopatra, while Paul of Aegina preserved alleged instructions of hers for dying and curling hair.^[257] The attribution of these texts to Cleopatra, however, is doubted by Ingrid D. Rowland, who highlights that the "Berenice called Cleopatra" cited by the 3rd or 4th-century female Roman physician Metrodora was likely conflated by medieval scholars as being Cleopatra VII.^[258]

Right: a Hellenistic bust of Ptolemy I, now in the Louvre, Paris
Left: a bust of Seleucus I Nicator, a Roman copy of a Greek original, from the Villa of the Papyri (Herculaneum), now in the National Archaeological Museum, Naples

Cleopatra VII belonged to the Macedonian-Greek dynasty of the Ptolemies.^{[10][13][259]} Through her father Ptolemy XII Auletes she was a descendant of two prominent companions of Alexander the Great of Macedon, including the general Ptolemy I, founder of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, and Seleucus I Nicator, the Macedonian-Greek founder of the Seleucid Empire of West Asia.^[10][259] While Cleopatra's paternal line can be traced through her father, the identity of her mother is unknown.^{[260][13][261][14]} She may have been the daughter of Cleopatra VI Tryphaena^[13][14] (also known as Cleopatra V Tryphaena),^{[note 2]} the cousin-wife^[262] or sister-wife of Ptolemy XII.^[26][13][14] Alternatively, she may have been born to a Syrian or Egyptian concubine of Ptolemy XII.^[14] Roller speculates that she could have been the daughter of a half-Macedonian-Greek, half-Egyptian woman belonging to a family of priests dedicated to Ptah, which would make Cleopatra three-quarters Macedonian-Greek and one-quarter native Egyptian.^[263] However, it is generally believed that the Ptolemies did not intermarry with native Egyptians.^[14]

Claims that Cleopatra was an illegitimate child never appeared in Roman propaganda.^[264][14] Strabo was the only ancient historian who claimed that Ptolemy XII's children born after Berenice IV, including Cleopatra VII, were illegitimate.^[264] Cleopatra V (or VI) was expelled from the court of Ptolemy XII in late 69 BC, a few months after the birth of Cleopatra VII, while Ptolemy XII's three younger children were all born in the decade-long absence of his wife.^[28] The high degree of inbreeding among the Ptolemies is also illustrated by Cleopatra's immediate ancestry, of which a reconstruction is shown below.^{[note 6]} The family tree given below also lists Cleopatra V, Ptolemy XII's wife, as a daughter of Ptolemy X and Berenice III, which would make her a cousin of her husband Ptolemy XII, but she could have been a daughter of Ptolemy IX, which would have made her a sister-wife of Ptolemy XII instead.^[262] The confused accounts in ancient primary sources have also led scholars to number Ptolemy XII's wife as either Cleopatra V or Cleopatra VI, the latter of whom may have actually been a daughter of Ptolemy XII and which some use as an indication that Cleopatra V had died in 69 BC rather than reappearing as a co-ruler with Berenice IV in 58 BC (during Ptolemy XII's exile in Rome).^[265]

• List of female rulers and title holders

Notes

Citations

Cited in text

Online sources

Printed sources

Wikinews has related news:

• Egyptian archaeologist finds artifacts which may lead to Cleopatra's tomb

• Cleopatra on In Our Time at the BBC
• Cleopatra, a Victorian children's book by Jacob Abbott, 1852, Project Gutenberg edition
• "Mysterious Death of Cleopatra" at the Discovery Channel
• Cleopatra VII at BBC History
• Cleopatra VII at Ancient History Encyclopedia

Early childhood

Cleopatra VII was born in early 69 BC to the ruling Ptolemaic pharaoh Ptolemy XII Auletes and an unknown mother,^[2] perhaps Ptolemy XII's wife Cleopatra VI Tryphaena.^{[3][4][5][note 1]} Cleopatra had two sisters, Berenice IV and Arsinoe IV, and two brothers, Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV.^[6] Her childhood tutor was Philostratos, from whom she learned the Greek arts of oration and philosophy.^[7] During her youth Cleopatra presumably studied at the Musaeum, including the Library of Alexandria.^[8]

Ptolemaic pharaohs spoke Greek and governed Egypt as Hellenistic-Greek monarchs from the multicultural and largely-Greek city of Alexandria established by Alexander the Great of Macedon, refusing to learn the native Egyptian language.^{[9][note 2]} In contrast, Cleopatra could understand and speak multiple languages by adulthood. These included Egyptian, Ethiopian, Trogodyte, Hebrew (or Aramaic), Arabic, the Syrian language (Syriac?), Median, Parthian, and Latin, although her Roman colleagues would have preferred to speak with her in her native Koine Greek.^[10][11] Aside from Greek, Egyptian, and Latin, these languages reflected Cleopatra's desire to restore African and Asian territories that once belonged to the Ptolemaic Empire.^[12]

Roman interventionism in Egypt predated the reign of Cleopatra VII.^[13] When Ptolemy IX Lathyros died in late 81 BC he was succeeded by his daughter Berenice III.^[14] However, with opposition building at the royal court against the idea of a sole-reigning female monarch, Berenice III accepted joint rule and marriage with her cousin and stepson Ptolemy XI Alexander II, an arrangement made by the dictator Sulla.^[14] The incestuous Ptolemaic practice of sibling marriage was introduced by Ptolemy II and his sister Arsinoe II, a long-held royal Egyptian practice but one that was loathed by contemporary Greeks.^[15][16] By the reign of Cleopatra VII, however it was considered a normal arrangement for Ptolemaic rulers.^[15][16] Ptolemy XI had his stepmother-wife killed shortly after their marriage in 80 BC, but he was also killed soon thereafter in the resulting riot over the assassination.^[14][17] Since it was either Ptolemy X Alexander I or Ptolemy IX who willed the Ptolemaic Kingdom to Rome as collateral for loans, the Romans had legal grounds to take over Egypt, their client state.^[14][18] However, they chose instead to carve up the Ptolemaic realm to be ruled by Ptolemy IX's two illegitimate sons, bestowing Cyprus to Ptolemy of Cyprus and Egypt to Ptolemy XII.^[14][17]

Ptolemy XII gained a reputation as an aloof monarch who enjoyed a life of luxury, while causing dynastic troubles with the expulsion of his sister-wife Cleopatra VI from the court in late 69 BC, a few months after the birth of Cleopatra VII.^[19] His three younger children were all born in the more than decade-long absence of his wife.^[20] In 65 BC the Roman censor Marcus Licinius Crassus argued before the Roman Senate that Ptolemaic Egypt should be annexed, but his proposed bill and that of tribune Servilius Rullus in 63 BC were rejected.^[21][22] Ptolemy XII responded to the threat of possible annexation by offering remuneration and lavish gifts to powerful Roman statesmen such as Pompey the Great during his campaign against Mithridates VI of Pontus and eventually Julius Caesar after he became consul in 59 BC.^[23][24] However, Ptolemy XII's profligate behavior bankrupted him and he was forced to acquire loans from the Roman banker Gaius Rabirius Postumus.^[25][26]

In 58 BC the Romans annexed Cyprus and drove Ptolemy XII's brother Ptolemy of Cyprus to commit suicide rather than exile to Paphos.^[28][29] Ptolemy XII remained publicly silent on the death of his brother, a decision which, along with ceding traditional Ptolemaic territory to the Romans, damaged his credibility among subjects already enraged by his economic policies.^[28][26] Ptolemy XII was then exiled from Egypt by force, traveling first to Rhodes, then Athens, and finally the villa of the triumvir Pompey in the Alban Hills near Praeneste.^[28][29] Ptolemy XII spent nearly a year there on the outskirts of Rome, ostensibly accompanied by his then 11-year-old daughter Cleopatra.^[28] Berenice IV sent an embassy to Rome to advocate for her rule and oppose the reinstatement of her father Ptolemy XII, but Ptolemy employed his assassins to kill the leaders of the embassy, an incident that was covered up by his powerful Roman supporters.^[30][26] When the Roman Senate denied Ptolemy XII the offer of an armed escort and provisions for a return to Egypt, he decided to leave Rome in late 57 BC and reside in the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus.^[31]

The Roman financiers of Ptolemy XII remained determined to restore him to power.^[32] Pompey persuaded Aulus Gabinius, the Roman governor of Syria, to invade Egypt and restore Ptolemy XII, offering him 10,000 talents for the proposed mission.^[32][29] Although it put him at odds with Roman law, Gabinius invaded Egypt in the spring of 55 BC by way of Hasmonean Judea, where Hyrcanus II had Antipater the Idumaean, father of Herod the Great, furnish the Roman-led army with supplies.^[32][26] Under Gabinius' command was the young cavalry officer Mark Antony, who distinguished himself by preventing Ptolemy XII from massacring the inhabitants of Pelousion and rescuing the body of Archelaos, husband of Berenice IV, after the latter was killed in battle, ensuring him a proper royal burial.^[33] Cleopatra, now 14 years of age, would have traveled with the Roman expedition into Egypt; years later Mark Antony would profess that he had fallen in love with her at this time.^[33][34]

Gabinius was put on trial in Rome for abusing his authority, for which he was acquitted, but his second trial for accepting bribes led to his exile, from which he was recalled seven years later in 48 BC by Julius Caesar.^[35] Crassus replaced him as governor of Syria and extended his provincial command to Egypt, but he was killed by the Parthians at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC.^[35][36] Ptolemy XII had his rival daughter Berenice and her wealthy supporters executed, seizing their properties while allowing Gabinius' largely Germanic and Gallic Roman garrison—the Gabiniani—to harass people in the streets of Alexandria and installing his longtime Roman financier Rabirius Postumus as his chief financial officer.^[37][38] Rabirius Postumus was unable to collect the entirety of Ptolemy XII's debt by the time of the latter's death, hence it was passed on to his successors Cleopatra VII and Ptolemy XIII.^[39] Within a year Rabirius Postumus was placed under protective custody and sent back to Rome after his life was endangered for draining Egypt of its resources.^[39][40] Despite these problems, Ptolemy XII, who died of natural causes, created a will designating Cleopatra VII and Ptolemy XIII as his joint heirs, oversaw major construction projects such as the Temple of Edfu and Dendera Temple, and stabilized the economy.^[41][40] In 52 BC Cleopatra was made a regent of Ptolemy XII as indicated by an inscription in the Temple of Hathor at Dendera.^[42][43]

Accession to the throne

Ptolemy XII died sometime before 22 March 51 BC, when Cleopatra, in her first act as queen, began her voyage to Hermonthis, near Thebes, to install a new sacred Buchis bull, worshiped as an intermediary for the god Montu in the Ancient Egyptian religion.^[44][45][46] Cleopatra faced several pressing issues and emergencies shortly after taking the throne. These included famine caused by drought and low-level flooding of the Nile and lawless behavior instigated by the Gabiniani, the now unemployed and assimilated Roman soldiers left by Gabinius to garrison Egypt.^[47][48] Inheriting her father's debts, Cleopatra also owed the Roman Republic 17.5 million drachmas.^[49]

In 50 BC Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, proconsul of Syria, sent his two eldest sons to Egypt, most likely to negotiate with the Gabiniani and recruit them as soldiers in the desperate defense of Syria against the Parthians.^[50] However, the Gabiniani tortured and murdered these two, perhaps with secret encouragement by rogue senior administrators in Cleopatra's court.^[50][51] Bibulus sent the prisoners back to Cleopatra and chastised her for interfering in Roman affairs that should have been handled directly by the Roman Senate.^[52] Bibulus, siding with Pompey in Caesar's Civil War, was then charged with preventing Caesar from landing a naval fleet in Greece, a task that he failed and which ultimately allowed Julius Caesar to reach Egypt in pursuit of Pompey.^[52]

By 29 August 51 BC official documents started listing Cleopatra as the sole ruler, evidence that she had rejected her brother Ptolemy XIII as a co-ruler.^[49][51] However, Ptolemy XIII still retained strong allies, notably the eunuch Potheinos, his childhood tutor, regent, and administrator of his properties.^[53][48] Others involved in the cabal against Cleopatra included Achillas, a prominent military commander, and Theodotus of Chios, another tutor of Ptolemy XIII.^[53] Cleopatra seems to have attempted a short-lived alliance with her brother Ptolemy XIV, but by the autumn of 50 BC Ptolemy XIII had the upper hand in their conflict and began signing documents with his name before that of his sister, followed by the establishment of his first regnal date in 49 BC.^[45][54][55]

Assassination of Pompey

Cleopatra and her forces were still fighting against Ptolemy XIII within Alexandria when Gnaeus Pompeius, son of Pompey, arrived at Alexandria in the summer of 49 BC seeking military aid on behalf of his father.^[54] After returning to Italy from the wars in Gaul and crossing the Rubicon in January of 49 BC, Caesar forced Pompey and his supporters to flee to Greece in a Roman civil war.^[56] In perhaps their last joint decree, both Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII agreed to Gnaeus Pompeius' request and sent his father 60 ships and 500 troops, including the Gabiniani, a move that helped erase some of the debt owed to Rome.^[56] Losing the fight against her brother, Cleopatra was then forced to flee Alexandria and withdraw to the region of Thebes.^[57][58] However, by the spring of 48 BC Cleopatra traveled to Roman Syria with her little sister Arsinoe IV to gather an invasion force that would head to Egypt.^[59][55] She returned with an army, perhaps right around the time of Caesar's arrival, but her advance to Alexandria was blocked by her brother's forces, including some Gabiniani mobilized to fight against her, and she had to make camp outside Pelousion in the eastern Nile Delta.^[60][55]

In Greece, Caesar and Pompey's forces engaged each other at the decisive Battle of Pharsalus on 9 August 48 BC, leading to the destruction of most of Pompey's army and his forced flight to Tyre, Lebanon.^[60][61][62] Given his close relationship with the Ptolemies, he ultimately decided that Egypt would be his place of refuge, where he could replenish his forces.^[63][62] Ptolemy XIII's advisers, however, feared the idea of Pompey using Egypt as his base of power in a protracted Roman civil war.^[63] In a scheme devised by Theodotos, Pompey arrived by ship near Pelousion after being invited by written message, only to be ambushed and stabbed to death on 28 September 48 BC.^[63][61][64] Ptolemy XIII believed he had demonstrated his power and simultaneously diffused the situation by having Pompey's severed head sent to Caesar, who arrived in Alexandria by early October and resided at the royal palace.^[65][66][67] Caesar expressed grief and outrage over the killing of Pompey, and called on both Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra VII to disband their forces and reconcile with each other.^[65][68][67]

Relationship with Julius Caesar

Ptolemy XIII arrived at Alexnandria at the head of his army, in clear defiance of Caesar's demand that he disband and leave his army before his arrival.^[69] Cleopatra initially sent emissaries to Caesar, but upon allegedly hearing that Caesar was inclined to having affairs with royal women, she came to Alexandria to see him personally.^[69][70] Historian Cassius Dio records that she simply did so without informing her brother, dressing in an attractive manner and charming him with her wit.^[69][71] Plutarch provides an entirely different and perhaps mythical account that alleges she was bound inside a bed sack to be smuggled into the palace to meet Caesar.^[69][72][70]

When Ptolemy XIII realized that his sister was in the palace and consorting directly with Caesar, he attempted to rouse the populace of Alexandria into a riot, but he was arrested by Caesar who used his oratorical skills to calm the frenzied crowd.^[73][74] Caesar then brought Cleopatra VII and Ptolemy XIII before the assembly of Alexandria, where Caesar revealed the written will of Ptolemy XII—previously possessed by Pompey—naming Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII as his joint heirs.^[75][74][70] Caesar then attempted to arrange for the other two siblings, Arsinoe IV and Ptolemy XIV, to rule together over Cyprus, thus removing potential rival claimants to the Egyptian throne while also appeasing the Ptolemaic subjects still bitter over the loss of Cyprus to the Romans in 58 BC.^[76][74][70]

Potheinos, judging that this agreement actually favored Cleopatra over Ptolemy XIII and that the latter's army of 20,000, including the Gabiniani, could most likely defeat Caesar's army of 4,000 unsupported troops, decided to have Achillas lead their forces to Alexandria to attack both Caesar and Cleopatra.^[76][74][77] The resulting siege of the palace with Caesar and Cleopatra trapped together inside lasted into the following year of 47 BC.^{[78][68][79][80]} After Caesar managed to execute Potheinos, Arsinoe IV joined forces with Achillas and was declared queen, but soon afterwards had her tutor Ganymedes kill Achillas and take his position as commander of her army.^[81][82] Ganymedes then tricked Caesar into requesting the presence of the erstwhile captive Ptolemy XIII as a negotiator, only to have him join the army of Arsinoe IV.^[81][83]

Sometime between January and March 47 BC Caesar's reinforcements arrived, including those led by Mithridates of Pergamon and Antipater the Idumaean.^{[81][68][84][note 3]} Ptolemy XIII and Arsinoe IV withdrew their forces to the Nile River, where Caesar attacked them and forced Ptolemy XIII to flee by boat but it capsized and he drowned.^[85][68][80] Ganymedes was perhaps killed in the battle, Theodotos was found years later in Asia by Marcus Brutus and executed, while Arsinoe IV was forcefully paraded in Caesar's triumph in Rome before being exiled to the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus.^[86][87] Cleopatra was conspicuously absent from these events and resided in the palace, most likely because she was pregnant with Caesar's child ever since September 47 BC.^[88][89]

Caesar's term as consul had expired at the end of 48 BC.^[86] However, his officer Mark Antony helped to secure Caesar's election as dictator lasting for a year, until October 47 BC, providing Caesar with the legal authority to settle the dynastic dispute in Egypt.^[86] Wary of repeating the mistake of Berenice IV in having a sole-ruling female monarch, Caesar appointed 12-year-old Ptolemy XIV as 22-year-old Cleopatra VII's joint ruler in a nominal sibling marriage, but Cleopatra continued living privately with Caesar.^{[90][68][84][note 4]} The exact date at which Cyprus was returned to her control is not known, although she had a governor there by 42 BC.^[91][84]

Caesar is alleged to have joined Cleopatra for a cruise of the Nile and sightseeing of monuments, although this may be a romantic tale reflecting later well-to-do Roman proclivities and not a real historic event.^[92][68][93] The historian Suetonius provided considerable details about the voyage, including use of a Thalamegos pleasure barge first constructed by Ptolemy IV, which during his reign measured 300 ft (91.4 m) in length and 80 ft (24.3 m) in height and was complete with dining rooms, state rooms, holy shrines, and promenades along its two decks resembling a floating villa.^[92] Caesar could have had an interest in the Nile cruise owing to his fascination with geography, as he was well-read in the works of Eratosthenes and Pytheas and perhaps wanted to discover the source of the river, but turned back before reaching Ethiopia.^[94]

Caesar departed from Egypt in about April 47 BC, allegedly to confront Pharnaces II of Pontus, son of Mithridates the Great, who was stirring up trouble for Rome in Anatolia.^[95] It is possible that Caesar, married to the prominent Roman woman Calpurnia, also wanted to avoid being seen together with Cleopatra when she bore him their son.^[95][93] He left three legions in Egypt, later increased to four, under the command of the freedman Rufio, to secure Cleopatra's tenuous position but also perhaps to keep her activities in check.^[95][96]

Caesarion, Cleopatra's alleged child with Caesar was born 23 June 47 BC, originally named "Pharaoh Caesar" as preserved on a stele at the Serapeion in Memphis.^[97][68][98] Perhaps owing to his still childless marriage with Calpurnia, Caesar remained publicly silent about Caesarion.^[99] Cleopatra, on the other hand, made repeated official declarations about Caesarion's parentage, with Caesar as the father.^[99]

Cleopatra VII and her nominal joint ruler Ptolemy XIV visited Rome sometime in late 46 BC, presumably without Caesarion, and were given lodging in Caesar's Villa within the Horti Caesaris.^[100][98] Like with their father Ptolemy XII, Julius Caesar awarded Cleopatra VII and Ptolemy XIV with the legal status of friendly and allied monarchs to Rome.^[101][98] Cleopatra's visitors at Caesar's villa across the Tiber included the senator Cicero, who found her to be arrogant.^[102] Sosigenes of Alexandria, one of the members of Cleopatra's court, aided Caesar in the calculations for the new Julian Calendar, put into effect 1 January 45 BC.^[103][104] The Temple of Venus Genetrix, established in the Forum of Caesar on 25 September 46 BC, contained a golden statue of Cleopatra (which stood there at least until the 3rd century AD), associating the mother of Caesar's child directly with the goddess Venus, mother of the Romans.^[105][104] The statue also subtly linked the Egyptian goddess Isis with the Roman religion.^[102]

Cleopatra's presence in Rome most likely had an effect on the events at the Lupercalia festival a month before Caesar's assassination.^[106] Mark Antony attempted to place a royal diadem on Caesar's head, which the latter refused in what was most likely a staged performance, perhaps to gauge the Roman public's mood about accepting Hellenistic-style kingship.^[106] Cicero, who was present at the festival, mockingly asked where the diadem came from, an obvious reference to the Ptolemaic queen who he abhorred.^[106]

Caesar was assassinated on the Ides of March (15 March 44 BC), but Cleopatra stayed in Rome until about mid-April, in the vain hope of having Caesarion recognized as Caesar's heir.^[107][108] However, Caesar's will named his grandnephew Octavian as the primary heir, and Octavian arrived in Italy around the same time Cleopatra decided to depart for Egypt.^[107][108] A few months later Cleopatra decided to kill her brother and joint ruler Ptolemy XIV by poisoning, elevating her son Caesarion instead as her co-ruler.^[109][110]

Cleopatra in the Roman civil war

Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate in 43 BC, in which they were each elected for five-year terms to restore order in the Republic and bring Caesar's assassins to justice.^[111][112] Cleopatra received messages from both Gaius Cassius Longinus, one of Caesar's assassins, and Publius Cornelius Dolabella, proconsul of Syria and Caesarian loyalist, requesting military aid.^[111] She decided to write Cassius an excuse that her kingdom faced too many internal problems while sending the four legions left by Caesar in Egypt to Dolabella.^[111][113] However, these troops were captured by Cassius in Palestine.^[111][113] While Serapion, Cleopatra's governor of Cyprus, defected to Cassius and provided him with ships, Cleopatra took her own fleet to Greece to personally assist Octavian and Antony, but her ships were heavily damaged in a Mediterranean storm and she arrived too late to aid in the fighting.^[111][114] By the autumn of 42 BC Antony defeated the forces of Caesar's assassins at the Battle of Philippi in Greece, leading to the suicide of Cassius and Marcus Junius Brutus.^[111][115]

By the end of 42 BC, Octavian gained control over much of the western half of the Roman Republic and Antony the eastern half, with Lepidus largely marginalized.^[116] In the summer of 41 BC Antony established his headquarters at Tarsos in Anatolia and summoned Cleopatra there in several letters, which she initially rebuffed Antony's envoy Quintus Dellius convinced her to come.^[117][118] The meeting allowed Cleopatra to clear up the misconception that she had supported Cassius during the civil war and address territorial exchanges in the Levant, but Antony also undoubtedly desired to form a personal, romantic relationship with the queen.^[119][118] Cleopatra sailed up the Kydnos River to Tarsos in her Thalamegos, inviting Antony and his officers for two nights of lavish banquets on board her ship.^[120][34] Cleopatra managed to clear her name as a supposed supporter of Cassius, arguing she had really attempted to help Dolabella in Syria, while convincing Antony to have her rival sister Arsinoe IV dragged from her place of exile at the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus and executed.^[121][122] Cleopatra's former rebellious governor of Cyprus was also handed over to her for execution.^[121][123]

Relationship with Mark Antony

Cleopatra invited Antony to come to Egypt before departing from Tarsos, which led Antony to visit Alexandria by November 41 BC.^[121][124] Antony was well-received by the populace of Alexandria, for his heroic actions in restoring Ptolemy XII to power and coming to Egypt without an occupational force like Caesar had done.^[125][126] In Egypt, Antony continued to enjoy the lavish royal lifestyle he had witnessed aboard Cleopatra's ship docked at Tarsos.^[127][123] He also had his subordinates, such as Publius Ventidius Bassus, drive the Parthians out of Anatolia and Syria.^[126]

Cleopatra carefully chose Antony as her partner for producing further heirs, as he was deemed to be the most powerful Roman figure following Caesar's demise.^[128] With his triumviral powers, Antony also had the broad authority to restore former Ptolemaic lands to Cleopatra that were currently in Roman hands.^[129][130] While it is clear that both Cilicia and Cyprus were under Cleopatra's control by 19 November 38 BC, the transfer probably occurred earlier in the winter of 41-40 BC, during her time spent with Antony.^[129]

By the spring of 40 BC, Mark Antony left Egypt due to troubles in Syria, where his governor Lucius Decidius Saxa was killed and his army taken by Quintus Labienus, a former officer under Cassius who now served the Parthian Empire.^[131] Cleopatra provided Antony with 200 ships for his campaign and as payment for her newly-acquired territories.^[131] She would not see Antony again until 37 BC, but she maintained correspondence and evidence suggests she kept a spy in his camp.^[131] By the end of 40 BC Cleopatra gave birth to twins, a boy named Alexander Helios and a girl named Cleopatra Selene II, both of whom Antony acknowledged as his children.^[132][133] Helios (Greek: Ἥλιος), the sun, and Selene (Greek: Σελήνη), the moon, were symbolic of a new era of societal rejuvenation,^[134] as well as an indication that Cleopatra hoped Antony would repeat the exploits of Alexander the Great by conquering Persia.^[126]

Mark Antony's Parthian campaign in the east was disrupted by the events of the Perusine War (41-40 BC), initiated by his ambitious wife Fulvia against Octavian in the hopes of making her husband the undisputed leader of Rome.^[134] It has been suggested that Fulvia wanted to cleave Antony away from Cleopatra, but the conflict emerged in Italy even before Cleopatra's meeting with Antony at Tarsos.^[135] Fulvia and Antony's brother Lucius Antonius were eventually besieged by Octavian at Perusia (modern Perugia, Italy) and then exiled from Italy, after which Fulvia died at Sikyon in Greece while attempting to reach Antony.^[136] Her sudden death led to a reconciliation of Octavian and Antony at Brundisium in Italy in September 40 BC.^[136][126] Although the agreement struck at Brundisium solidified Antony's control of the Roman Republic's territories east of the Ionian Sea, it also stipulated that he concede Italia, Hispania, and Gaul, and marry Octavian's sister Octavia the Younger, a potential rival for Cleopatra.^[137][133]

In December 40 BC Cleopatra received Herod I (the Great) in Alexandria as an unexpected guest and refugee who fled a turbulent situation in Judea.^[138] Herod had been installed as a tetrarch there by Mark Antony, but he was soon at odds with Antigonus II Mattathias of the long-established Hasmonean dynasty.^[138] The latter had imprisoned Herod's brother and fellow tetrarch Phasael, who was executed while Herod was in mid-flight towards Cleopatra's court.^[138] Cleopatra attempted to provide him with a military assignment, but Herod declined and traveled to Rome, where the triumvirs Octavian and Mark Antony named him king of Judea.^[139][140] This act put Herod on a collision course with Cleopatra, who would desire to reclaim former Ptolemaic territories of his new Herodian kingdom.^[139]

Relations between Mark Antony and Cleopatra perhaps soured when he not only married Octavia, but also bore her two children, Antonia the Elder in 39 BC and Antonia Minor in 36 BC, moving his headquarters to Athens.^[141] However, Cleopatra's position in Egypt was secure.^[126] Her rival Herod was occupied with civil war in Judea that required heavy Roman military assistance, but received none from Cleopatra.^[141] Since the triumviral authority of Mark Antony and Octavian had expired on 1 January 37 BC, Octavia arranged for a meeting at Tarentum where the triumvirate was officially extended to 33 BC.^[142] With two legions granted by Octavian and a thousand soldiers lent by Octavia, Mark Antony traveled to Antioch, where he made preparations for war against the Parthians.^[143]

Antony summoned Cleopatra to Antioch to discuss pressing issues such as Herod's kingdom and financial support for his Parthian campaign.^[143][144] Cleopatra brought her now three-year-old twins to Antioch, where Mark Antony saw them for the first time and where they probably first received their surnames Helios and Selene as part of Antony and Cleopatra's ambitious plans for the future.^[145] In order to stabilize the east, Antony not only enlarged Cleopatra's domain,^[144] but also established new ruling dynasties and client rulers who would be loyal to him yet would ultimately outlast him.^{[146][130][note 5]}

In this arrangement Cleopatra gained significant former Ptolemaic territories in the Levant, including nearly all of Phoenicia(Lebanon) minus Tyre and Sidon, which remained in Roman hands.^{[147][130][144]} She also received Ptolemais Akko (modern Acre, Israel), a city that was established by Ptolemy II.^[147] Given her ancestral relations with the Seleucids, she was granted the region of Koile-Syria along the upper Orontes River.^[148][144] She was even given the region surrounding Jericho in Palestine, but she leased this territory back to Herod.^[149][140] At the expense of the Nabataean king Malichus I (a cousin of Herod), Cleopatra was also given a portion of the Nabataean Kingdom around the Gulf of Aqaba on the Red Sea, including Ailana (modern Aqaba, Jordan).^[150][140] To the west Cleopatra was handed Cyrene along the Libyan coast, as well as Itanos and Olous in Roman Crete.^[151][144] Although still administered by Roman officials, these territories nevertheless enriched her kingdom and led her to declare the inauguration of a new era by double-dating her coinage in 36 BC.^[152][153]

Antony's enlargement of the Ptolemaic realm by relinquishing directly-controlled Roman territory was exploited by his rival Octavian, who tapped into the public sentiment in Rome against the empowerment of a foreign queen at the expense of their Republic.^[154] Octavian also fostered the narrative that Antony was neglecting his virtuous Roman wife Octavia, granting both her and Livia, Octavian's wife, extraordinary privileges of sacrosanctity.^[154] Cornelia Africana, daughter of Scipio Africanus, was the first living Roman woman to have a statue dedicated to her.^[152] She was followed by Octavian's sister Octavia and his wife Livia, whose statues were most likely erected in the Forum of Caesar to rival that of Cleopatra's erected by Caesar.^[152]

In 36 BC, Cleopatra accompanied Antony to the Euphrates River in his journey towards invading the Parthian Empire.^[155] She then returned to Egypt, perhaps due to her advanced state of pregnancy. By the summer of 36 BC gave birth to Ptolemy Philadelphus, her second son with Antony.^[156][144]

Antony's Parthian campaign in 36 BC turned into a complete debacle and was stymied by a number of factors, including the betrayal of Artavasdes II of Armenia, who defected to the Parthian side.^{[157][130][158]} After losing some 30,000 men, more so than Crassus at Carrhae (an indignity he had hoped to avenge), Antony finally arrived at Leukokome near Berytus (modern Beirut, Lebanon) in December, engaged in heavy drinking before Cleopatra arrived to provide funds and clothing for his battered troops.^[157][159] Octavia offered to lend him more troops for another expedition, but Antony desired to avoid the political pitfalls of returning to Rome and so he traveled with Cleopatra back to Alexandria to see his newborn son.^[157]

Donations of Alexandria

As Antony prepared for another Parthian expedition in 35 BC, this time aimed at their ally Armenia, Octavia traveled to Athens with 2,000 troops in alleged support of Antony, but most likely in a scheme devised by Octavian to embarrass him for his military losses.^{[160][161][note 6]} Antony received these troops but told Octavia not to stray east of Athens as he and Cleopatra traveled together to Antioch, only to suddenly and inexplicably abandon the military campaign and head back to Alexandria.^[160][161] When Octavia returned to Rome Octavian portrayed his sister as a victim wronged by Antony, although she refused to leave Antony's household.^[162][130] Octavian's confidence grew as he eliminated his rivals in the west, including Sextus Pompeius and even Lepidus, the third member of the triumvirate, who was placed under house arrest after revolting against Octavian in Sicily.^{[162][130][159]}

Quintus Dellius was sent as Antony's envoy to Artavasdes II of Armenia in 34 BC to negotiate a potential marriage alliance that would wed the Armenian king's daughter to Antony and Cleopatra's son Alexander Helios.^[165][166] When this was declined, Antony marched his army into Armenia, defeated their forces and captured the king and Armenian royal family.^[165][167] Antony then held a military parade in Alexandria in mock of a Roman triumph, dressed as Dionysos as he rode into the city on a chariot and presented the royal prisoners to Queen Cleopatra, who was seated on a golden throne above a silver dais.^[165][168] News of this event was heavily criticized in Rome as a perversion of time-honored Roman rites and rituals to be enjoyed instead by an Egyptian queen.^[165]

In an event held at the gymnasium soon after the triumph, known as the Donations of Alexandria, Cleopatra dressed as Isis and declared that she was the Queen of Kings with her son Caesarion, King of Kings, while Alexander Helios was declared king of Armenia, Medes, and Parthia, and two-year-old Ptolemy Philadelphos was declared king of Syria and Cilicia.^{[169][170][171]} Cleopatra Selene was also bestowed with Crete and Cyrene.^[172][173] Antony and Cleopatra were probably wed during this ceremony.^{[172][171][note 7]} Antony sent a report to Rome requesting ratification of these territorial claims, which Octavian wanted to publicize for propaganda purposes, but the two consuls, both supporters of Antony, had it censored from public view.^[174][173]

In late 34 BC, following the Donations of Alexandria, Antony and Octavian engaged in a heated war of propaganda that would last for years.^[177][173] Antony claimed that his rival had illegally deposed Lepidus from their triumvirate and barred him from raising troops in Italy, while Octavian accused Antony of unlawfully detaining the king of Armenia, marrying Cleopatra despite still being married to his sister Octavia, and wrongfully claiming Caesarion as the heir of Caesar instead of Octavian.^[177][173] The litany of accusations and gossip associated with this propaganda war have shaped the popular perceptions about Cleopatra from Augustan-period literature all the way to various media in modern times.^[178] Cleopatra was said to have had brainwashed Mark Antony with witchcraft and sorcery and was as dangerous as Homer's Helen of Troy in destroying civilization.^[179] Horace's Satires preserved an account that Cleopatra once dissolved a pearl worth 2.5 million drachmas in vinegar just to prove a dinner party bet.^[180] The accusation that Antony had stolen books of the Library of Pergamon to restock the Library of Alexandria later turned out to be an admitted fabrication by Gaius Calvisius Sabinus.^[181]

A papyrus document dated to February 33 BC contains the signature handwriting of Cleopatra VII.^[175][176] It concerns certain tax exemptions in Egypt granted to Publius Canidius Crassus, former Roman consul and Antony's confidant who would command his land forces at Actium.^[182][176] A subscript in a different handwriting at the bottom of the papyrus reads "make it happen" (Greek: γινέσθωι, romanized: ginesthō), undoubtedly the autograph of the queen, as it was Ptolemaic practice to countersign documents in avoidance of forgery.^[182][176]

Battle of Actium

In a speech to the Roman Senate on the first day of his consulship on 1 January 33 BC, Octavian accused Antony of attempting to subvert Roman freedoms and territorial integrity as a slave to his Oriental queen.^[183] Before Antony and Octavian's joint imperium expired on 31 December 33 BC, Antony declared Caesarion as the true heir of Julius Caesar in an attempt to undermine Octavian.^[183] On 1 January 32 BC the Antonian loyalists Gaius Sosius and Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus were elected as consuls.^[182] On 1 February 32 BC Sosius gave a fiery speech condemning Octavian, now a private citizen without public office, introducing pieces of legislation against him.^[182][184] During the next senatorial session, Octavian entered the Senate house with armed guards and levied his own accusations against the consuls.^[182][185] Intimidated by this act, the next day the consuls and over two-hundred senators still in support of Antony fled Rome and joined the side of Antony.^{[182][185][186]}

Antony and Cleopatra traveled together to Ephesus in 32 BC, where she provided him with 200 naval ships of the 800 total he was able to acquire.^[182] Domitius Ahenobarbus, wary of Octavian's propaganda, attempted to persuade Antony to have Cleopatra excluded from the campaign against Octavian.^[187][188] Publius Canidius Crassus made the counterargument that Cleopatra was funding the war effort and was a competent monarch.^[187][188] Cleopatra refused Antony's requests that she return to Egypt, judging that by blocking Octavian in Greece she could more easily defend Egypt.^[187][188] Cleopatra's insistence that she be involved in the battle for Greece led to defections of prominent Romans such as Domitius Ahenobarbus and Lucius Munatius Plancus.^[187][185]

During the spring of 32 BC Antony and Cleopatra traveled to Athens, where she persuaded Antony to send Octavia an official declaration of divorce.^{[187][185][171]} This encouraged Munatius Plancus to advise Octavian that he should seize Antony's will, invested with the Vestal Virgins.^{[187][185][173]} Although a violation of sacred and legal rights, Octavian forcefully acquired the document from the Temple of Vesta, a useful tool in the propaganda war against Antony and Cleopatra.^[187][173] Octavian highlighted parts of the will such as Caesarion being named heir to Caesar, that the Donations of Alexandria were legal, that Antony should be buried alongside Cleopatra in Egypt instead of Rome, and that Alexandria would be made the new capital of the Roman Republic.^{[189][185][173]} In a show of loyalty to Rome, Octavian decided to begin construction of his own mausoleum at the Campus Martius.^[185] Octavian's legal standing was also improved by being elected consul in 31 BC.^[185] With Antony's will made public, Octavian had his casus belli and Rome declared war on Cleopatra,^{[189][190][191]} not Antony.^{[note 8]} The legal argument for war was based less on Cleopatra's territorial acquisitions, with former Roman territories ruled by her children with Antony, and more on the fact that she was providing military support to a private citizen now that Antony's triumviral authority had expired.^[192]

Antony and Cleopatra had a larger fleet than Octavian, but the crews of Antony and Cleopatra's navy were not all well-trained, some of them perhaps from merchant vessels, whereas Octavian had a fully professional force.^[193][188] Antony wanted to cross the Adriatic Sea and blockade Octavian at either Tarentum or Brundisium,^[194] but Cleopatra, concerned primarily with defending Egypt, overrode the decision to attack Italy directly.^[195][188] Antony and Cleopatra set up their winter headquarters at Patrai in Greece and by the spring of 31 BC they moved to Actium along the southern Ambracian Gulf.^[195][194]

Cleopatra and Antony had the support of various allied kings, but conflict between Cleopatra and Herod had previously erupted and an earthquake in Judea provided him an excuse to be absent from the campaign.^[196] They also lost the support of Malichus I of Nabataea, which would prove to have strategic consequences.^[197] Antony and Cleopatra lost several skirmishes against Octavian around Actium during the summer of 31 BC, while defections to Octavian's camp continued, including Antony's long-time companion Quintus Dellius.^[197] The allied kings also began to defect to Octavian's side, starting with Amyntas of Galatia and Deiotaros of Paphlagonia.^[197] While some in Antony's camp suggested abandoning the naval conflict to retreat inland, Cleopatra urged for a naval confrontation instead to keep Octavian's fleet away from Egypt.^[198]

On 2 September 31 BC the naval forces of Octavian, led by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, met those of Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium.^{[198][194][190]} Cleopatra, aboard her flagship the Antonias, commanded 60 ships at the mouth of the Ambracian Gulf, at the rear of the fleet, in what was likely a move by Antony's officers to marginalize her during the battle.^[198] Antony had ordered that their ships should have sails on board for a better chance to pursue or flee from the enemy, which Cleopatra, ever-concerned about defending Egypt, used to swiftly move through the area of major combat in a strategic withdrawal to the Peloponnese.^{[199][200][201]} Antony followed her and boarded her ship, identified by its distinctive purple sails, as the two escaped the battle and headed for Tainaron.^[199] Antony reportedly avoided Cleopatra during this three-day voyage, until her ladies in waiting at Tainaron urged him to speak with her.^[202] The Battle of Actium raged on without Cleopatra and Antony, until the morning of 3 September, followed by massive defections of officers, troops, and allied kings to Octavian's side.^{[202][200][203]}

Downfall and death

While Octavian occupied Athens, Antony and Cleopatra landed at Paraitonion in Egypt.^[202][205] The couple then went their separate ways, Antony to Cyrene to raise more troops and Cleopatra sailing into the harbor at Alexandria in a misleading attempt to portray the activities in Greece as a victory.^[202] It is also uncertain if at this time she actually executed Artavasdes II of Armenia and sent his head to Artavasdes I, king of Media Atropatene, his rival, in an attempt to strike an alliance with him.^[206][207]

Lucius Pinarius, Mark Antony's appointed governor of Cyrene, received word that Octavian had won the Battle of Actium before Antony's messengers could arrive at his court.^[206] Pinarius had these messengers executed and defected to Octavian's side, surrendering to him the four legions under his command that Antony desired to obtain.^[206] Antony nearly committed suicide after hearing news of this but was stopped by his staff officers.^[206] In Alexandria he built a reclusive cottage on the island of Pharos that he nicknamed the Timoneion, after the philosopher Timon of Athens, who was famous for his cynicism and misanthropy.^[206] Herod the Great, who had personally advised Antony after the Battle of Actium that he should betray Cleopatra, traveled to Rhodes to meet Octavian and resign his kingship out of loyalty to Antony.^[208] Octavian was impressed by his speech and sense of loyalty, so he allowed him to maintain his position in Judea, further isolating Antony and Cleopatra.^[208]

Cleopatra perhaps started to view Antony as a liability by the late summer of 31 BC, when she prepared to leave Egypt to her son Caesarion.^[209] Cleopatra planned to relinquish her throne to him, taking her fleet from the Mediterranean into the Red Sea and then setting sail to a foreign port, perhaps in India where she could spend time recuperating.^[209][207] However, these plans were ultimately abandoned when Malichus I of Nabataea, as advised by Octavian's governor of Syria Quintus Didius, managed to burn Cleopatra's fleet, in revenge for his losses in a war with Herod that Cleopatra had largely initiated.^[209][207] Cleopatra had no other option but to stay in Egypt and negotiate with Octavian.^[209] Although most likely pro-Octavian propaganda, it was reported that at this time Cleopatra started testing the strengths of various poisons on prisoners and even her own servants.^[210]

Cleopatra had Caesarion enter into the ranks of the ephebi, which, along with reliefs on a stele from Koptos dated 21 September 31 BC, demonstrated that Cleopatra was now grooming her son to become the sole ruler of Egypt.^[211] In a show of solidarity Antony also had Marcus Antonius Antyllus, his son with Fulvia, enter the ephebi at the same time.^[209] Separate messages and envoys from Antony and Cleopatra were then sent to Octavian, still stationed at Rhodes, although Octavian seems to have only replied to Cleopatra.^[210] Cleopatra requested that her children should inherit Egypt and that Antony should be allowed to live in exile in Egypt, offering Octavian money in the future and immediately sending him lavish gifts.^[210][207] Octavian sent his diplomat Thyrsos to Cleopatra after she threatened to burn herself and vast amounts of her treasure within a tomb already under construction.^[212] Thyrsos advised her to kill Antony so that her life would be spared, but when Antony suspected foul intent he had this diplomat flogged and sent back to Octavian without a deal.^[213]

After lengthy negotiations that ultimately produced no results, Octavian set out to invade Egypt in the spring of 30 BC,^[214] stopping at Ptolemais in Phoenicia where his new ally Herod provided his army with fresh supplies.^[215] Octavian moved south and swiftly took Pelousion, while Cornelius Gallus, marching eastward from Cyrene, defeated Antony's forces near Paraitonion.^[216] Octavian advanced quickly onto Alexandria, but Antony returned and won a small victory over his tired troops outside the city's hippodrome.^[216] However, on 1 August 30 BC Antony's naval fleet surrendered to Octavian, followed by his cavalry.^[216][200] Cleopatra hid herself in her tomb with her close attendants, sending a message to Antony that she had committed suicide.^[216] In despair, Antony responded to this by stabbing himself in the stomach and taking his own life at age 53.^{[216][200][207]} According to Plutarch he was allegedly still dying, however, when brought to Cleopatra at her tomb, telling her he had died honorably and that she could trust Octavian's companion over anyone else in his entourage.^[216] It was Proculeius, however, who infiltrated her tomb using a ladder and detained the queen, denying her the ability to burn herself with her treasures.^[217] Cleopatra was then allowed to embalm and bury Antony within her tomb before she was escorted to the palace.^[217][207]

Octavian entered Alexandria, occupied the palace, and seized Cleopatra's three youngest children.^[217] When she met with Octavian she told him bluntly that "I will not be led in a triumph" (Greek: οὑ θριαμβεύσομαι, romanized: ou thriamvéfsoume) according to Livy, a rare recording of her exact words.^[218][219] Octavian promised that he would keep her alive but offered no explanation about his future plans for her kingdom.^[220] When a spy informed her that Octavian planned to move her and her children to Rome in three days she prepared for suicide, as she had no intentions of being paraded in a Roman triumph like her sister Arsinoe IV.^{[220][200][207]} It is unclear if Cleopatra's suicide, in August 30 BC at age 39, took place within the palace or her tomb.^{[221][222][note 9]} It is said she was accompanied by her servants Eiras and Charmion, who also took their own lives.^[220] Octavian was said to be angered by this outcome but had her buried in royal fashion next to Antony in her tomb.^[220] Cleopatra's physician Olympos did not give an account of the cause of her death, although the popular belief is that she allowed an asp, or Egyptian cobra, to bite and poison her.^{[223][224][207]} Plutarch relates this tale, but then suggests an implement (knestis) was used to introduce the toxin by scratching, while Cassius Dio says that she injected the poison with a needle (belone) and Strabo argued for an ointment of some kind.^{[225][224][226]} No venomous snake was found with her body, but she did have tiny puncture wounds on her arm that could have been caused by a needle.^[223][226]

Cleopatra decided in her last moments to send Caesarion away to Upper Egypt and perhaps with plans to flee to Nubia, Ethiopia or India.^[227][228] Caesarion, now Ptolemy XV, would reign for a mere eighteen days until executed on the orders of Octavian on 29 August 30 BC, as he was returning to Alexandria under the false pretense that Octavian would allow him to be king.^[229][230] Octavian was convinced by the advice of the philosopher Arius Didymus that there was room for only one Caesar in the world.^[231] With the fall of the Ptolemaic Kingdom, Egypt was made into a Roman province,^{[232][200][233]} marking the end of the Hellenistic period.^[234] In January 27 BC Octavian was renamed Augustus ('the revered') and amassed constitutional powers that established him as the first Roman emperor, inaugurating the Principate era of the Roman Empire.^[235]

Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page).