Provisional government

A provisional government, also called an interim government, an emergency government, a transitional government or provisional leadership,^[1] is a temporary government formed to manage a period of transition, often following state collapse. Provisional governments are generally appointed, and frequently arise, either during or after civil or foreign wars, or during difficult times such as during invasion, economic crisis, or widespread infiltration of saboteurs and counter-revolutionaries such as during the French Revolution.

Provisional governments maintain power until a new government can be appointed by a regular political process, which is generally an election.^[2] They may be involved with defining the legal structure of subsequent regimes, guidelines related to human rights and political freedoms, the structure of the economy, government institutions, and international alignment.^[3] Provisional governments differ from caretaker governments, which are responsible for governing within an established parliamentary system and serve as placeholders following a motion of no confidence, or following the dissolution of the ruling coalition.^[3]

In opinion of Yossi Shain and Juan J. Linz, provisional governments can be classified to four groups:^[4]

Revolutionary provisional governments (when the former regime is overthrown and the power belongs to the people who have overthrown it).
Power sharing provisional governments (when the power is shared between former regime and the ones who are trying to change it).
Incumbent provisional governments (when the power during transitional period belongs to the former regime).
International provisional governments (when the power during the transitional period belongs to the international community).

The establishment of provisional governments is frequently tied to the implementation of transitional justice.^[5] Decisions related to transitional justice can determined by prominent and who is allowed to participate in a provisional government.^{[citation needed]}

The early provisional governments were created to prepare for the return of royal rule. Irregularly convened assemblies during the English Revolution, such as Confederate Ireland (1641–49), were described as "provisional". The Continental Congress, a convention of delegates from 13 British colonies on the east coast of North America became the provisional government of the United States in 1776, during the American Revolutionary War. The government shed its provisional status in 1781, following ratification of the Articles of Confederation, and continued in existence as the Congress of the Confederation until it was supplanted by the United States Congress in 1789.

The practice of using "provisional government" as part of a formal name can be traced to Talleyrand's government in France in 1814. In 1843, American pioneers in the Oregon Country, in the Pacific Northwest region of North America established the Provisional Government of Oregon—as the U.S. federal government had not yet extended its jurisdiction over the region—which existed until March 1849. The numerous provisional governments during the Revolutions of 1848 gave the word its modern meaning: A liberal government established to prepare for elections.

List of provisional governments

Numerous provisional governments have been established since the 1850s.

Africa

As of 2023 in Africa, South Sudan, Libya, Sudan, Burkina Faso, Chad, Guinea, Mali, Niger and Gabon currently have provisional governments.

Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic (1958–62) (guerrilla movement)
Zimbabwe Rhodesia (1979–1980), a short-lived yet internationally unrecognized sovereign state formed in the waning years of the Rhodesian Bush War, in contrast with the reestablished Southern Rhodesia. Ultimately dissolved in favor of granting independence to Southern Rhodesia as Zimbabwe.
Transitional Government of National Unity (Namibia) (1985–1989), interim government during the end of the South African Border War
Transitional Government of Ethiopia (1991–1995), established after the end of the Ethiopian Civil War
Provisional Government of Eritrea (1993), established after independence from Ethiopia
Transitional Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (2003–2006), established in 2003 following the conclusion of the Second Congo War
National Transitional Legislative Assembly of Liberia (2003–2006), Liberia's legislative body during the country's transition from civil war to democratic rule
National Transitional Council of Libya (2011–2012), formed during the 2011 civil war in Libya against the Gaddafi-led government
Interim government of Egypt (2013–2014), established following the June 2013 Egyptian protests and subsequent coup
The UN-supported Government of National Unity In Libya (2021–present), formed following the Libyan Political Dialogue Forum in Sirte
Sovereignty Council of Sudan (2019–2021, 2021–present), established in August 2019 after 8 month-long protests against President Bashir and a subsequent military coup
National Transitional Council in Chad (2022–present), formed in 2022 to replace the Transitional Military Council.
Patriotic Movement for Safeguard and Restoration in Burkina Faso (2022–present),formed on the 24 of January 2022 the group took over after a coup in January. The leader Paul-Henri Sandaogo Damiba suffered a coup himself. After that, Ibrahim Traroé took power as the leader of the group and interim president of Burkina Faso.
Committee for the Transition and Restoration of Institutions (August 2023 – present).
National Council for the Safeguard of the Homeland (CNSP) (July 2023 – present).

Americas

Continental Congress (1776–1781), interim ruling body of the United States after declaring independence from the British Empire. Following the ratification of the Articles of Confederation, the Continental Congress was absorbed into the Congress of the Confederation, which subsequently became the United States Congress upon ratification of the Constitution.
Provisional Government of Mexico (1823–1824), interim ruling body of Mexico following the dissolution of the First Mexican Empire. Succeeded by the First Mexican Republic following the ratification of the 1824 Constitution.
Texian Consultation (1835–1836), interim ruling body of Mexican Texas during the Texas Revolution. Ultimately collapsed due to political tensions following the Matamoros Expedition.
U.S. provisional government of New Mexico (1846–1850), interim ruling body of New Mexico following the region's occupation by the United States during the Mexican–American War. Succeeded by the New Mexico Territory in 1850 before being admitted to the Union as the 47th state in 1912.
National Council of Government (1986–1988), interim ruling body of Haiti, after the departure of Jean-Claude Duvalier.
Venezuelan transitional government (2019–2022), established in January 2019 by the National Assembly led by Juan Guaidó, currently in dispute with the incumbent government of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela led by Nicolás Maduro. The transitional government is supported and recognized by United States, European Union, Lima Group, and many other Western countries.
Transitional Presidential Council (2024–present), established in April 2024 to exercise the powers and duties of the President of Haiti either until an elected president is inaugurated or until 7 February 2026. The council was officially sworn in as the head of state of Haiti following the resignation of acting president Ariel Henry on 24 April.

Asia

Revolutionary Government of the Philippines (1898–1899), established in the Spanish East Indies
Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912), established after the success of the Wuchang uprising.

World War I and Interbellum

Provisional Government of India (1915), established in Kabul.
Republic of Van (1915), established in Western Armenia.
South West Caucasian Republic (1919), established in Kars.
Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea (1919), established in exile based in Shanghai, China and later in Chongqing, during the Japanese occupation of Korea.
Government of the Grand National Assembly (1920–1923), established as an alternative government to the Allied-occupied Ottoman Empire during the Turkish War of Independence

World War II

Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1937–40), established by the Empire of Japan when invading Eastern China.
Provisional Government of Free India (1943–1945), commonly known as Azad Hind, established by Indian nationalists in southeast Asia, had nominal sovereignty over Axis controlled Indian territories, and had diplomatic relationships with eleven countries including Germany, Italy, Japan, Philippines, and the Soviet Union. It was headed by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, who was the Head of the State and Prime Minister, who was also the Supreme Commander of the Indian National Army. The government had its own cabinet and banks. It was also the first government to recruit women for combat roles.

Cold War and aftermath

People's Republic of Korea (1945–1946), a provisional government established following the surrender of Japan at the conclusion of World War II, which resulted in the restoration of Korean independence. Following the division of Korea, the PRK was outlawed by the United States in favor of the American military government, while the Soviet Union incorporated it into the Provisional People's Committee of North Korea.
United States Army Military Government in Korea (1945–1948), an interim government formed by the United States concurrently with the People's Republic of Korea following the peninsula's independence from Japan. Later incorporated into South Korea following the division of Korea and the American ban on the People's Republic.
Provisional People's Committee of North Korea (1946–1947), an interim government formed by the Soviet Civil Administration following the division of Korea and the absorption of the People's Republic of Korea. Succeeded by the People's Committee of North Korea.
Interim Government of India (1946–1947), an interim government formed by the newly created Constituent Assembly of India to administer what would become the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan in the transitional period between British rule and independence.
People's Committee of North Korea (1947–1948), the successor government to the Provisional People's Committee of North Korea during the latter period of Soviet occupation. Ultimately incorporated into North Korea.
Emergency Government of the Republic of Indonesia (1948–1949), an emergency government established by Sjafruddin Prawiranegara in Sumatra following the capture of Yogyakarta, the then-Indonesian capital, by the Netherlands.
Provisional government of Israel (1948–1949), established after Israel's declaration of independence and in place until after the first Knesset elections.
Provisional Central Government of Vietnam (1948–1949), established as a puppet government by French during the First Indochina War.
Provisional Government of the Syrian Arab Republic (1949), established by national consensus to draft a new constitution and reintroduce civilian rule after a series of military governments.
Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam (1969–1976), established during the Vietnam War against the United States and Republic of Vietnam
Provisional Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh (1970–1972), established after the declaration of freedom of Bengalis exiled to Calcutta.
Provisional Government of East Timor (1975–1976), established as a puppet state following the success of the Indonesian invasion of East Timor. Ultimately dissolved following the country's annexation as a province of Indonesia.
Interim Government of Iran, a provisional government established after the 1979 Iranian Revolution
Democratic Republic of Iran, formed in 1981 by the People's Mujahedin of Iran based in Paris and later Albania. It serves as the main Iranian government-in-exile opposing the clerical government.
Provisional Government of the Philippines (1986–1987), established after the People Power Revolution until the new constitution ratified
Executive Committee of the Palestine Liberation Organization (1988–), after it was entrusted with the powers and responsibilities of the Provisional Government of the State of Palestine.^[6]^[7]
United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (1992–1993)
Palestinian National Authority (1994–2013), the administrative organization, established to govern parts of the West Bank and Gaza Strip, following the Oslo Accords.^[8]

21st century

As of 2023^[update] in Asia, Afghanistan, Myanmar, Syria, and Yemen currently have provisional governments. The Syrian provisional governments are opposition groups in rebellion against their internationally recognized government. Afghanistan's provisional government is unrecognized, but is de facto the country's sole governing body. Myanmar and Yemen have both ruling and opposition provisional governments.

Coalition Provisional Authority in Iraq (2003–2004) with the Iraqi Interim Governing Council, established to act as a caretaker administration in Iraq following the 2003 invasion of Iraq pending the hand over of power to the Iraqi people and the creation of a democratically elected civilian government.
Iraqi Interim Government (2004–2005) and the Iraqi Transitional Government (2005–2006) were both provisional authorities established after the hand over of power to the Iraqi people following the 2003 invasion of Iraq to govern pending the adoption of a permanent constitution.
Syrian Interim Government (2013–present), established by the Syrian National Coalition during the Syrian Civil War
Supreme Political Council of Yemen (2015–present), established by the Houthi Movement after the 2014–15 Yemeni coup d'état, currently participating in the Yemeni Civil War (2014–present) against the governments of Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi and the Presidential Leadership Council
Southern Transitional Council of South Yemen (2016–present), established by the Southern Movement - a separatist group in southern Yemen - during the Yemeni Civil War (2014–present)
Syrian Salvation Government (2017–present), established by Hayat Tahrir al-Sham in the Idlib Governorate^[9]
Interim government of Kyrgyzstan (2020–2021), established in 2020 in the aftermath of the 2020 Kyrgyzstani protests
National Unity Government of Myanmar (2021–present), established in exile by the Committee Representing Pyidaungsu Hluttaw in opposition to the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état^[10]
Provisional Government of Myanmar (2021–present), established by the State Administration Council as a formalization of its rule six months after the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état^[11]
Caretaker Cabinet of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (2021–present), established by the Taliban following the 2021 fall of Kabul^[12]^[13]
Presidential Leadership Council (2022–present), established by internationally recognized outgoing president Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi to seek a "comprehensive political solution" to the Yemeni Civil War^[14]^[15]