This article contains Sindhi text, written from right to left with some letters joined. Without proper rendering support, you may see unjoined letters or other symbols instead of Sindhi script.
Sindhi (/ˈsɪndi/;[3] Sindhi: سِنڌِي(Perso-Arabic), सिन्धी(Devanagari)[sɪndʱiː]) is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by about 30 million people in the Pakistani province of Sindh, where it has official status. It is also spoken by a further 1.7 million people in India, where it is a scheduled language, without any state-level official status. The main writing system is the Perso-Arabic script, which accounts for the majority of the Sindhi literature and is the only one currently used in Pakistan. In India, both the Perso-Arabic script and Devanagari are used.
Sindhi is first attested in historical records within the Nātyaśāstra, a text thought to have been composed between 200 B.C. and 200 A.D. The earliest written evidence of Sindhi as a language can be found in a translation of the Qur’an into Sindhi dating back to 883 A.D.[4] Sindhi was one of the first Indo-Aryan languages to encounter influence from Persian and Arabic following the Umayyad conquest in 712 CE. A substantial body of Sindhi literature developed during the Medieval period, the most famous of which is the religious and mystic poetry of Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai from the 18th century. Modern Sindhi was promoted under British rule beginning in 1843, which led to the current status of the language in independent Pakistan after 1947.
The name "Sindhi" is derived from the Sanskritsíndhu, the original name of the Indus River, along whose delta Sindhi is spoken.[5]
Like other languages of the Indo-Aryan family, Sindhi is descended from Old Indo-Aryan (Sanskrit) via Middle Indo-Aryan (Pali, secondary Prakrits, and Apabhramsha). 20th century Western scholars such as George Abraham Grierson believed that Sindhi descended specifically from the Vrācaḍa dialect of Apabhramsha (described by Markandeya as being spoken in Sindhu-deśa, corresponding to modern Sindh) but later work has shown this to be unlikely.[6]
Early Sindhi (2nd–16th centuries)
Literary attestation of early Sindhi is sparse. Sindhi is first mentioned in historical records within the Nātyaśāstra, a text on dramaturgy thought to have been composed between 200 B.C. and 200 A.D. The earliest written evidence of Sindhi as a language can be found in a translation of the Qur’an into Sindhi dating back to 883 A.D.[4] Historically, Isma'ili religious literature and poetry in India, as old as the 11th century CE, used a language that was closely related to Sindhi and Gujarati. Much of this work is in the form of ginans (a kind of devotional hymn).[7][8]
Medieval Sindhi literature is of a primarily religious genre, comprising a syncretic Sufi and Advaita Vedanta poetry, the latter in the devotional bhakti tradition. The earliest known Sindhi poet of the Sufi tradition is Qazi Qadan (1493–1551). Other early poets were Shah Inat Rizvi (c. 1613–1701) and Shah Abdul Karim Bulri (1538–1623). These poets had a mystical bent that profoundly influenced Sindhi poetry for much of this period.[7]
Another famous part of Medieval Sindhi literature is a wealth of folktales, adapted and readapted into verse by many bards at various times and possibly much older than their earliest literary attestations. These include romantic epics such as Sassui Punnhun, Sohni Mahiwal, Momal Rano, Noori Jam Tamachi, Lilan Chanesar, and others.[9]
The greatest poet of Sindhi was Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai (1689/1690–1752), whose verses were compiled into the Shah Jo Risalo by his followers. While primarily Sufi, his verses also recount traditional Sindhi folktales and aspects of the cultural history of Sindh.[7]
The first attested Sindhi translation of the Quran was done by Akhund Azaz Allah Muttalawi (1747–1824) and published in Gujarat in 1870. The first to appear in print was by Muhammad Siddiq in 1867.[10]
Modern Sindhi (1843–present)
In 1843, the British conquest of Sindh led the region to become part of the Bombay Presidency. Soon after, in 1848, Governor George Clerk established Sindhi as the official language in the province, removing the literary dominance of Persian. Sir Bartle Frere, the then commissioner of Sindh, issued orders on August 29, 1857, advising civil servants in Sindh to pass an examination in Sindhi. He also ordered the use of Sindhi in official documents.[11] In 1868, the Bombay Presidency assigned Narayan Jagannath Vaidya to replace the Abjad used in Sindhi with the Khudabadi script. The script was decreed a standard script by the Bombay Presidency thus inciting anarchy in the Muslim majority region. A powerful unrest followed, after which Twelve Martial Laws were imposed by the British authorities. The granting of official status of Sindhi along with script reforms ushered in the development of modern Sindhi literature.
The first printed works in Sindhi were produced at the Muhammadi Press in Bombay beginning in 1867. These included Islamic stories set in verse by Muhammad Hashim Thattvi, one of the renowned religious scholars of Sindh.[9]
The Partition of India in 1947 resulted in most Sindhi speakers ending up in the new state of Pakistan, commencing a push to establish a strong sub-national linguistic identity for Sindhi. This manifested in resistance to the imposition of Urdu and eventually Sindhi nationalism in the 1980s.[12]
The language and literary style of contemporary Sindhi writings in Pakistan and India were noticeably diverging by the late 20th century; authors from the former country were borrowing extensively from Urdu, while those from the latter were highly influenced by Hindi.[13]
Geographic distribution
In Pakistan, Sindhi is the first language of 30.26 million people, or 14.6% of the country's population as of the 2017 census. 29.5 million of these are found in Sindh, where they account for 62% of the total population of the province. There are 0.56 million speakers in the province of Balochistan,[14] especially in the Kacchi Plain that encompasses the districts of Lasbela, Hub, Kachhi, Sibi, Sohbatpur, Jafarabad, Jhal Magsi, Usta Muhammad and Nasirabad.
In India, Sindhi mother tongue speakers were distributed in the following states:
2011 Census Statistics(India Total: 2,772,264)[15][a]
Sindhi is the official language of the Pakistani province of Sindh[16][2] and one of the scheduled languages of India, where it does not have any state-level status.[17]
Prior to the inception of Pakistan, Sindhi was the national language of Sindh.[18][19][20][21] The Pakistan Sindh Assembly has ordered compulsory teaching of the Sindhi language in all private schools in Sindh.[22] According to the Sindh Private Educational Institutions Form B (Regulations and Control) 2005 Rules, "All educational institutions are required to teach children the Sindhi language.[23] Sindh Education and Literacy Minister, Syed Sardar Ali Shah, and Secretary of School Education, Qazi Shahid Pervaiz, have ordered the employment of Sindhi teachers in all private schools in Sindh so that this language can be easily and widely taught.[24] Sindhi is taught in all provincial private schools that follow the Matric system and not the ones that follow the Cambridge system.[25]
The Indian Government has legislated Sindhi as a scheduled language in India, making it an option for education. Despite lacking any state-level status, Sindhi is still a prominent minority language in the Indian state of Rajasthan.[30]
There are many Sindhi language television channels broadcasting in Pakistan such as Time News, KTN, Sindh TV, Awaz Television Network, Mehran TV, and Dharti TV.
Vicholi: The prestige dialect spoken around Hyderabad and central Sindh (the Vicholo region). The literary standard of Sindhi is based on this dialect.
Uttaradi: The dialect of northern Sindh (Uttaru, meaning "north"), with minor differences in Larkana, Shikarpur and in parts of Sukkur and Kandiaro.[36]
Siroli/Siraiki or Ubheji: The dialect of northernmost Sindh (Siro, meaning "head").[37] Spoken in smaller number all over Sindh but mainly in Jacobabad and Kashmore districts, it has little similarity with the Saraiki language of South Punjab[38] and has variously been treated either as a dialect of Saraiki or as a dialect of Sindhi.[39]
Lasi: The dialect of Lasbela, Hub and Gwadar districts in Balochistan, closely related to Lari and Vicholi, and in contact with Balochi.
Firaqi Sindhi: The dialect of the Kachhi plains the north eastern districts of Balochistan, where it is referred to as Firaqi Sindhi or commonly just Sindhi.[40][41]
Thareli: also called Tharechi dialect, spoken in north eastern Thar Desert of Sindh, called Nara desert (Achhro thar), but mainly spoken in the western part of Jaisalmer district of Rajasthan, India by many Sindhi Muslims.[42][43]
Sindhi Bhili: It is a dialect spoken in Sindh by the Sindhi Meghwars and Bheels.[44] Sindhi Bhil is known to have many old Sindhi words, which were lost after Arabic, Persian, and Chaghatai influence.[45][46]
The variety of Sindhi spoken by Sindhi Hindus who emigrated to India is known as Dukslinu Sindhi. Furthermore, Kutchi and Jadgali are sometimes classified as dialects of Sindhi rather than independent languages.
The retroflex consonants are apicalpostalveolar and do not involve curling back of the tip of the tongue,[53] so they could be transcribed [t̠,t̠ʰ,d̠,d̠ʱn̠n̠ʱɾ̠ɾ̠ʱ] in phonetic transcription. The affricates /tɕ,tɕʰ,dʑ,dʑʱ/ are laminal post-alveolars with a relatively short release. It is not clear if /ɲ/ is similar, or truly palatal.[54]/ʋ/ is realized as labiovelar [w] or labiodental [ʋ] in free variation, but is not common, except before a stop.
The vowels are modal length /ieæɑɔou/ and short /ɪʊə/. Consonants following short vowels are lengthened: /pət̪o/[pət̪ˑoː] 'leaf' vs. /pɑt̪o/[pɑːt̪oː] 'worn'.
Nouns
Sindhi nouns distinguish two genders (masculine and feminine), two numbers (singular and plural), and five cases (nominative, vocative, oblique, ablative, and locative). This is a similar paradigm to Punjabi. Almost all Sindhi noun stems end in a vowel, except for some recent loanwords. The declension of a noun in Sindhi is largely determined from its grammatical gender and the final vowel (or if there is no final vowel). Generally, -o stems are masculine and -a stems are feminine, but the other final vowels can belong to either gender.
The different paradigms are listed below with examples.[55] The ablative and locative cases are used with only some lexemes in the singular number and hence not listed, but predictably take the suffixes -ā̃ / -aū̃ / -ū̃ (ABL) and -i (LOC).
SG
PL
Gloss
NOM
VOC
OBL
NOM
VOC
OBL
M
I
ڇوڪِرو chokiro
ڇوڪِرا chokirā
ڇوڪِري chokire
ڇوڪِرا chokirā
ڇوڪِرا / ڇوڪِرَ chokirā / chokira
ڇوڪِرَنِ chokirani
boy
II
ٻارُ ɓāru
ٻارَ ɓāra
ٻارو / ٻارَ ɓāra / ɓāro
ٻارَنِ ɓārani
child
III
ساٿِي sāthī
ساٿِيءَ sāthīa
ساٿِي sāthī
ساٿيئَرو sāthīaro
ساٿيَنِ sāthyani
companion
رَھاڪُو rahākū
رَھاڪُوءَ rahākūa
رَھاڪُو rahākū
رَھاڪُئو rahākuo
رَھاڪُنِ rahākuni
inhabitant
IV
راجا rājā
راجا / راجائتو rājā / rājāito
راجائُنِ rājāuni
king
سيٺُ seṭhu
سيٺَ seṭha
سيٺَنِ seṭhani
merchant
F
I
زالَ zāla
زالُون zālū̃
زالُنِ zāluni
woman, wife
سَسُ sasu
سَسُون sasū̃
سَسُنِ sasuni
mother-in-law
II
دَوا davā
دَوائُون davāū̃
دَوائُنِ davāuni
medicine
راتِ rāti
راتيُون rātyū̃
راتيُنِ rātyuni
night
هوٽَل hoṭal
هوٽَلُون hoṭalū̃
هوٽَلُنِ hoṭaluni
hotel
III
ڳَئُون ɠaū̃
ڳَئُونَ ɠaū̃a
ڳَئُون ɠaū̃
ڳَئُونِ ɠaūni
cow
IV
نَدِي nadī
نَدِيءَ nadīa
نَديُون nadyū̃
نَديُنِ nadyuni
river
A few nouns representing familial relations take irregular declensions with an extension in -r- in the plural. These are the masculine nouns ڀاءُ bhāu "brother", پِيءُ pīu "father", and the feminine nouns ڌِيءَ dhīa "daughter", نُونھَن nū̃hã "daughter-in-law", ڀيڻَ bheṇa "sister", ماءُ māu "mother", and جوءِ joi "wife".[55]
Like other Indo-Aryan languages, Sindhi has first and second-person personal pronouns as well as several types of third-person proximal and distal demonstratives. These decline in the nominative and oblique cases. The genitive is a special form for the first and second-person singular, but formed as usual with the oblique and case marker جو jo for the rest. The personal pronouns are listed below.[56]
Personal pronouns
SG
PL
1
2
1
2
NOM
مَان / آئُون mā̃ / āū̃
تُون tū̃
اَسِين asī̃
تَوِهِين tavhī̃
OBL
مُون mū̃
تو to
اَسَان asā̃
تَوِهَان tavhā̃
GEN
مُنهِنجو mũhinjo
تُنهِنجو tũhinjo
—
The third-person pronouns are listed below. Besides the unmarked demonstratives, there are also "specific" and "present" demonstratives. In the nominative singular, the demonstratives are marked for gender. Some other pronouns which decline identically to ڪو ko "someone" are هَرڪو har-ko "everyone", سَڀڪو sabh-ko "all of them", جيڪو je-ko "whoever" (relative), and تيڪو te-ko "that one" (correlative).[56]
Most nominal relations (e.g. the semantic role of a nominal as an argument to a verb) are indicated using postpositions, which follow a noun in the oblique case. The subject of the verb takes the bare oblique case, while the object may be in nominative case or in oblique case and followed by the accusative case marker کي khe.[57]
The postpositions are divided into case markers, which directly follow the noun, and complex postpositions, which combine with a case marker (usually the genitive جو jo).
The postpositions with the suffix -o decline in gender and number to agree with their governor, e.g. ڇوڪِرو جو پِيءُ chokiro j-o pīu "the boy's father" but ڇوڪِر جِي مَاءُ chokiro j-ī māu "the boy's mother".
There are several ablative case markers formed from the spatial postpositions and the ablative ending -ā̃. These indicate complex motion such as "from inside of".[57]: 400
Ablative case markers
Marker
Example
English
کَان khā̃
ڇوڪِري کَان chokire khā̃
from the boy
مَان mā̃
ڇوڪِري مَان chokire mā̃
from inside the boy
تَان tā̃
ڇوڪِري تَان chokire tā̃
from upon the boy
ڏَانهَان ḍā̃hā̃
ڇوڪِري ڏَانهَان chokire ḍā̃hā̃
from the direction of the boy
Finally, some case markers are found in medieval Sindhi literature and/or modern poetic Sindhi, and otherwise not used in standard speech.
According to historian Nabi Bux Baloch, most Sindhi vocabulary is from ancient Sanskrit. However, owing to the influence of the Persian language over the subcontinent, Sindhi has adapted many words from Persian and Arabic. It has also borrowed from English and Hindustani. Today, Sindhi in Pakistan is slightly influenced by Urdu[citation needed], with more borrowed Perso-Arabic elements, while Sindhi in India is influenced by Hindi[citation needed], with more borrowed tatsam Sanskrit elements.[58]
Writing systems
Sindhis in Pakistan use a version of the Perso-Arabic script with new letters adapted to Sindhi phonology, while in India a greater variety of scripts are in use, including Devanagari, Khudabadi, Khojki, and Gurmukhi.[59] Perso-Arabic for Sindhi was also made digitally accessible relatively earlier.[60]
The earliest attested records in Sindhi are from the 15th century.[13] Before the standardisation of Sindhi orthography, numerous forms of Devanagari and Laṇḍā scripts were used for trading. For literary and religious purposes, a Perso-Arabic script developed by Abul-Hasan as-Sindi and Gurmukhi (a subset of Laṇḍā) were used. Another two scripts, Khudabadi and Shikarpuri, were reforms of the Landa script.[61][62] During British rule in the late 19th century, the Perso-Arabic script was decreed standard over Devanagari.[63]
Laṇḍā scripts
Laṇḍā-based scripts, such as Gurmukhi, Khojki, and the Khudabadi script were used historically to write Sindhi.
The Khudabadi alphabet was invented in 1550 CE, and was used alongside other scripts by the Hindu community until the colonial era, where the sole usage of the Arabic script for official purposes was legislated.
The script continued to be used on a smaller scale by the trader community until the Partition of India in 1947.[64]
ə
a
ɪ
i
ʊ
uː
e
ɛ
o
ɔ
k
kʰ
ɡ
ɠ
ɡʱ
ŋ
c
cʰ
ɟ
ʄ
ɟʱ
ɲ
ʈ
ʈʰ
ɖ
ɗ
ɽ
ṛ
ɳ
t
tʰ
d
dʱ
n
p
pʰ
f
b
ɓ
bʱ
m
j
r
l
ʋ
ʂ
s
h
Khojki
Khojki was employed primarily to record Muslim Shia Ismaili religious literature, as well as literature for a few secret Shia Muslim sects.[65][66]
Gurmukhi
The Gurmukhi script was also used to write Sindhi, mainly in India by Hindus.[64][65]
During the British raj, a variant of the Persian alphabet was adopted for Sindhi in the 19th century. The script is used in Pakistan and India today. It has a total of 52 letters, augmenting the Persian with digraphs and eighteen new letters (ڄ ٺ ٽ ٿ ڀ ٻ ڙ ڍ ڊ ڏ ڌ ڇ ڃ ڦ ڻ ڱ ڳ ڪ) for sounds particular to Sindhi and other Indo-Aryan languages. Some letters that are distinguished in Arabic or Persian are homophones in Sindhi.
جهہ
ڄ
ج
پ
ث
ٺ
ٽ
ٿ
ت
ڀ
ٻ
ب
ا
ɟʱ
ʄ
ɟ
p
s
ʈʰ
ʈ
tʰ
t
bʱ
ɓ
b
ɑːʔ∅
ڙ
ر
ذ
ڍ
ڊ
ڏ
ڌ
د
خ
ح
ڇ
چ
ڃ
ɽ
r
z
ɖʱ
ɖ
ɗ
dʱ
d
x
h
cʰ
c
ɲ
ڪ
ق
ڦ
ف
غ
ع
ظ
ط
ض
ص
ش
س
ز
k
q
pʰ
f
ɣ
ɑːoːeːʔ∅
z
t
z
s
ʂ
s
z
ي
ء
ه
و
ڻ
ن
م
ل
ڱ
گهہ
ڳ
گ
ک
jiː
ʔ∅
h
ʋʊoːɔːuː
ɳ
n
m
l
ŋ
ɡʱ
ɠ
ɡ
kʰ
Devanagari script
In India, the Devanagari script is also used to write Sindhi.[65] A modern version was introduced by the government of India in 1948; however, it did not gain full acceptance, so both the Sindhi-Arabic and Devanagari scripts are used. In India, a person may write a Sindhi language paper for a Civil Services Examination in either script.[67] Devanagari was seen as the most practical option for Sindhi language in India.[1]Diacritical bars below the letter are used to mark implosive consonants, and dots called nukta are used to form other additional consonants.
अ
आ
इ
ई
उ
ऊ
ए
ऐ
ओ
औ
ə
a
ɪ
i
ʊ
uː
e
ɛ
o
ɔ
क
ख
ख़
ग
ॻ
ग़
घ
ङ
k
kʰ
x
ɡ
ɠ
ɣ
ɡʱ
ŋ
च
छ
ज
ॼ
ज़
झ
ञ
c
cʰ
ɟ
ʄ
z
ɟʱ
ɲ
ट
ठ
ड
ॾ
ड़
ढ
ढ़
ण
ʈ
ʈʰ
ɖ
ɗ
ɽ
ɖʱ
ɽʱ
ɳ
त
थ
द
ध
न
t
tʰ
d
dʱ
n
प
फ
फ़
ब
ॿ
भ
म
p
pʰ
f
b
ɓ
bʱ
m
य
र
ल
व
j
r
l
ʋ
श
ष
स
ह
ʂ
ʂ
s
h
Roman Sindhi
The Sindhi-Roman script or Roman-Sindhi script is the contemporary Sindhi script usually used by the Sindhis when texting messages on their mobile phones.[68][69]
Advocacy
In 1972, an bill was passed by the provincial assembly of Sindh which saw Sindhi, given official status thus becoming the first provincial language in Pakistan to have its own official status.
Sindhi language was made the official language of Sindh according to Language Bill.
All Educational institutes in Sindh are mandated to teach Sindhi as per the bill.
Software
By 2001, Abdul-Majid Bhurgri[failed verification] had coordinated with Microsoft to develop Unicode-based Software in the form of the Perso-Arabic Sindhi script which afterwards became the basis for the communicated use by Sindhi speakers around the world.[70] In 2016, Google introduced the first automated translator for Sindhi language.[71][72] Later on in 2023 an offline support was introduced by Google Translate.[73][74] Which was followed by Microsoft Translator strengthening support in May of same year.[75][76]
In June 2014, the Khudabadi script of the Sindhi language was added to Unicode, However as of now the script currently has no proper rendering support to view it in unsupported devices.